Unit 1

The Meaning and Method of Doing Principle of Noncontradiction

Philosophy in Relation to the Human Person It denies that a thing can be or not be at
as an Embodied Being in the World and the the same time.
Environment
Principle of Excluded Middle
L1: Encounters in Everyday Life, Everything must either be or not be; there
Engaging in Wisdom is no middle ground conceivable.

Etymology of Philosophy Principle of Sufficient Reason

—came from two Greek words: Philo (to Nothing happens without a sufficient
love) & Sophia (wisdom) reason for its being and existence.
- Philosophy is the love of wisdom.
In attaining wisdom, there is a need for
Approaches of Philosophy: EMPTYING.
Scientific Approach
- Philosophical Approach: it is an ordered Emptying - is suspending one’s
body of learning as any other sciences. judgment and conclusion about a matter
and mentally exploring the pros and cons,
Nature Light of Reason the characteristics, and the purpose of an
- It uses one's natural capacity to think or idea or situation.
observe the world and people. • Emptying can be intellectual
• Emptying can also be spiritual
Study of all Things • Emptying is also physical
- This sets the distinction between
philosophy and other sciences. All other Philosophical Branches
sciences concerned themselves with a
particular object of investigation, but Metaphysics
philosophy is multidimensional or 1. What is real? "What is reality?"
holistic. A thinker is not bound to a specific 2. Why does reality exist and how does it
object of inquiry. He or she probes almost exist?
everything.
It came from two Greek words:
Through the natural light of reason, Meta (beyond/after) & Physika/Physika
philosophy examines the original grounds or (nature/things)
the essential principles of all things. Thus, it
also studies the FIRST CAUSE or the - Metaphysics means beyond nature or
HIGHEST PRINCIPLE since everything in after the things of nature.
the world and every situation has an origin.
–Reality is referred to as 'True Reality'. It
Principle of Identity means that it is the fundamental source and
It means that a thing, idea, or person always basis of all reality in the world and in
has a name, a concept, and a characteristic existence.
for that thing to exist.
Metaphysics assumes that the reality we What principle guides humanity toward
see with our eyes is just temporary cover happiness and ultimate destiny?
of the true reality that exists beyond what
our senses can perceive. In this framework, a strong sense of
individualism does not exist, but rather, the
Thales, a Greek thinker claims everything collective is emphasized. The actions and
is water. Water is the fundamental shape moral reasoning of St. Teresa of Calcutta
and movement of all things in the and St. Lorenzo Ruiz are exemplars of this
universe. theory.

Mind and Matter 2. Teleological Theory

- Entities that idealists and materialists What are the consequences that emphasize
based their theories upon. pleasure?

Plato (Socrates's most famous student) The authors of this theory are the Stoics,
- a good example of metaphysician. Epicureans, and Jeremy Bentham. What
: According to Plato, nothing we experience is good for the greatest number of people is
in the physical world with our five senses is the best choice and the moral choice.
real.
For example, if killing a cow is to save
Plato called the Truth as consisted in seven children from starvation, killing the
ideas or forms also referred as the cow is moral.
universals or absolutes: and such we
consider when discussing morals, 3. Deontological Ethics (Duty Ethics or
mathematical, and scientific ideas. Kantianism)
What is my moral duty?
Ethics
1. How do we distinguish good from evil or - Immanuel Kant is the author of this
right from wrong? ethical theory.
- From the Greek word: Ethos : This theory means that a person is bound
- Ethics means character, habit, norms, to duty and does not focus on what a
ways of behavior, etc. person thinks or feels about the situation.

It explores the nature of moral virtue and 4. Virtue Ethics

evaluates the morality and virtue of human What does it mean to live a good life
actions. beyond material want?

- Ethicists appeal to logical arguments to - Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle are some
justify claims and positions involving of the proponents of this theory.
morality. They use ethical theory in the - This ethical theory ignores the
analysis and deliberation of issues. consequences, duties, and social contracts.
Instead, it focuses on the character
Ethics have five main positions: development of individuals and their
1. Natural Law or Divine Command
acquisition of good virtue ethics (Tavani,
2011). : The word essentially refers to a
systematic study of human reasoning.
5. Relativism - It is crucial to emphasize that logic does
What does my culture or society think is not offer direct knowledge about the world.
acceptable? Instead, it functions as the tool that
evaluates the structure of our reasoning
- "When in Rome, do as the Romans do" rather than the specific content of our
is a view of ethical relativism that actions thoughts.
are morally right within a particular society
when they are approved by law, custom, or Logic is unconcerned with the
the convention of the society. knowledge we possess about particular
subjects; its focus lies on determining the
Epistemology validity and truthfulness of arguments
1. How do we acquire reliable knowledge? related to the subjects.

It came from two Greek words: Episteme Aesthetics

(knowledge) & Logos (study of) 1. What is beauty?

- Epistemology deals with nature, sources, from the Greek word: aisthētikos
limitations, and validity of knowledge : perceptive, sensitive, pertaining to
(Soccio, 2007). sensory perception.

Empiricism is the view that knowledge can - The establishment of criteria of beauty is
be attained only through sense experience. the function of aesthetics.

According to Empiricists, real knowledge is It is the science of beautiful in its various

based on what our sight, hearing, smell manifestations - including the sublime,
and other sense tell is really out there not comic, tragedic, pathetic, and ugly. It
what people make up in their heads. means whatever experience has relevance
to art.
- Knowledge is based on facts and evidence
that we can see and perceive in the world. Importance of aesthetics:
a. It vitalizes our knowledge.
Logic b. It helps us to live more genuinely and
1. What is correct reasoning? completely.
C. It brings us in touch with our culture
Came from Greek word: Logike (matters
pertaining to the human thought) Hans - George Gadamer argued that our
taste and judgements regarding beauty
- It was coined by Zeno the Stoic. work and connection with one down
- Reasoning is the concern of the logician. personal experience and culture.
Various kind of reasons may be used and all
are of interest to the logician.
- He believed that our culture consists of the (utang na loob) strengthens the bonds
values and beliefs of our time and our between superordinates and subordinates,
society. That is why a 'Dialogue' or holding the group together.
conversation is important in interpreting
works of art. Filipino duty should extend beyond utang na
loob (indebtedness to patrons) to uplifting
Filipino Thinking: From Local to Global others' lives on both familial (micro) and
1. Loob: Holistic and Interior Dimensions societal (macro) levels. Filipinos highly
; Kagandahang-loob, kabutihang-loob, and value endurance and hard work as path
kalooban are terms that show sharing of to economic self-sufficiency, which is
one's others. Interiority manifests itself in rooted in providing for the family as a way of
freedom. honoring the gratitude owed for life and
nurturing.
- Loob is relational. It keeps us in touch
with fellow beings. Philippine values, in fact, L2: Methods of Philosophizing
are self with essentially interpersonal.
Intermediaries or go-betweens, loyalty, Philosophizing
compassion, and respect for authority are It is to think or express oneself in a rational
such values that relate to persons. and logical manner.

The concept of Filipino time is often Philosophizing considers or discusses a

misinterpreted as a habit of tardiness but matter from a philosophical standpoint:
this is misleading.
-​ In Phenomenology, truth is based
Filipino farmers, for instance, are early on person’s consciousness.
risers who value productivity. Additionally, -​ In Existentialism, truth is based on
practices like siesta or power nap are exercising choices and personal
integral to Filipino culture, promoting rest freedom.
and positive mindset, especially in the -​ In Postmodernism, it is accepted
concept of modern online activities. that truth is not absolute (i.e.,
cultural)
2. Filipino Thoughts and Values: -​ In Logic, truth is based on
Progressive and Undesirable Traits reasoning and critical thinking

- The Philippine value system, rooted in A. Phenomenology: Consciousness

Filipino philosophy, emphasizes vertical
relationships within small, primary groups -​ The word Phenomenon comes
rather than horizontal class identification. directly from the Greek
phainomenon, meaning
Filipino aligns themselves with authority “appearance” It is founded by
figures based on wealth, power, and age, Edmund Husserl.
receiving protection and favor while -​ Focuses on careful inspection and
reciprocating support to those below. This description of phenomena or
mutual exchange of debts of gratitude
 appearances based on what we are 4.​ Value our existence in the world
conscious of. and in relation to it. There is no
-​ Phenomenological method is a objective truth.
series that continuously revises our 5.​ Confront issues including genetic
perceptions of reality as it removes engineering which is a direct
or “brackets out” the nonessentials. intervention in the genetic makeup of
-​ People cannot fully and directly humans, sex change operation,
experience the physical world, but climate, and poverty; and
we can only see and analyze the 6.​ Respect and dignity to oneself, as
consciousness of our minds that well as nature lead to a sacred and
perceive the physical world or meaningful life.
distinguish the natural world from the
phenomenological position. .
D. Analytic Tradition
B. Existentialism: Freedom
-​ Our search for truth by means of -​ “Is truth objective?” Ludwig
critical thinking is a rational choice. Wittgenstein argued that language
-​ Sartre, a French philosopher, cannot objectively describe truth. He
emphasizes the importance of claimed that language is socially
individual choice, regardless of conditioned, which means that the
coercion of our beliefs and meaning of the words is created by
decisions. what people have agreed upon.
-​ Sartre argued that consciousness -​ Truth is itself socially constructed.
(being-for-itself) is such that is -​ According to Alfred Tarski, a U.S.
always free to choose (though not mathematician and logician, with
free not to choose) and free to respect to semantic conception of
negate (or reject) the given features truth, that far from being abstract,
of the world. truth is tangible. Truth shows
properties and is based on
C. Postmodernism: Cultures physical facts.
Postmodernism rejects the convictions,
aspirations, and pretensions of modern E. Logic and Critical Thinking: Tools in
Western traditions. Reasoning

Postmodernists share these attitudes: Logic and critical thinking consider these
1.​ Truth is beyond the rational to the three concepts interpreting the meaning of
nonrational elements of human facts:
nature, including the spiritual. 1.​ Cultural systems
2.​ Realize the limit of reason and 2.​ Values
objectivism. 3.​ Beliefs
3.​ Adhere to a relational, holistic
approach. -​ Critical thinking helps us uncover
bias and prejudice and become
open to new ideas not necessarily
 in agreement with our previous : Validity arises from logical
thoughts. conclusions based on the two
-​ Warnings, piece of advice, beliefs, or logically constructed premises.
opinions lack a claim that However, the conclusion is not
establishes provability. There is no necessarily true or false. (e.g.,
argument that is without evidence or deductive reasoning or argument)
reason supporting its conclusion. 2.​ Strength of an argument
-​ A factual claim must present : Multistage random sampling and
evidence or reason. surveys are examples of inductive
reasoning. Surveys try to get many
Two Parts of an Argument specific examples to arrive at a
Premises general and educated guess.
-​ Statements that claim to present the Example:
evidence or reasons, for instance, Jay: Do you think Congressman Lito will be
consider: Human cloning is evil. re-elected?
Conclusion Yna: I doubt it. His district has become more
-​ In this case, the conclusion: Human liberal in recent years. Also, 60% of the
cloning should never be allowed. registered voters in his district are gearing
up for his rival in office.
Two Basic Types of Reasoning
This argument consists of two common
1.​ Deductive – draws conclusion from patterns of inductive reasoning, statistical
usually one broad judgement or argument and predictive argument. Also,
definition and one more specific the conclusion does not necessarily follow
assertion, often an inference. from the premise.
Example:
All truth seekers are prudent. (Major F. Fallacy
premise) Kong Zi is a truth-seeker. -​ A defect in an argument, and to
(Minor premise) Therefore, Kong Zi detect it, we examine the content of
is prudent. (Conclusion) the argument.
2.​ Inductive – based on
observations in order to make Some of the usually committed errors in
generalizations. reasoning:
Example: Many people are holding
their umbrellas, the ground is wet, 1.​ Appeal to pity (Argumentum ad
and the wind is strong, so probably it misericordiam)
is raining. A specific kind of appeal to emotion
that is used by exploiting his or her
It is important to consider building a strong opponent’s feelings of pity or guilt.
and valid reasoning. 2.​ Appeal to ignorance
(Argumentum ad ignorantiam)
1.​ Validity and soundness of an A fallacy following an assumption
argument that whatever has not been
 proven false must be true, and
vice versa. 9.​ False cause (Post hoc)
3.​ Equivocation Since that event followed this one,
A fallacy when a term or a that event must have been caused
particular word is used in the by this one. This fallacy is also
same context but has a different referred to as coincidental
meaning each time. correlation or correlation not
Example: causation.
a. Human beings have hands; the
clock has hands. 10.​Hasty generalization.
b. He is drinking from the pitcher of One commits errors if one reaches
water; he is a baseball pitcher an inductive generalization
4.​ Composition grounded on inadequate
This infers that something is true evidence. The fallacy is commonly
of the whole from the fact that it is based on an expansive conclusion
true of some part of the whole. The upon the statistics of a survey of a
reverse of this fallacy is division. small group that inadequately
5.​ Division represents the whole population.
One reasons logically that 11.​Begging the question (Petitio
something true of a thing must principii)
also be true of all or some of its This is a type of fallacy in which
parts. the proposition to be proven is
6.​ Against the person (Argumentum assumed implicitly or explicitly in
ad hominem) the premise.
This fallacy attempts to link the
validity of a premise to a Determining Truth from Opinion:
characteristic or credentials of the Opinion
person supporting the premise. It can be a belief or judgment that rests
However, in some instances, on grounds insufficient to produce
questions of personal conduct, complete certainty. It is a personal view,
character, and motives among attitude, or appraisal or personal feelings.
others are legitimate if relevant to
the issue. Truth
7.​ Appeal to force (Argumentum ad Knowledge cannot be doubted. It is certain
baculum) and a justified true belief. Truth is the
An argument where strength, thoughts in the mind that conform to the
coercion, or the threat of force is reality of the world.
a justification for a conclusion.
8.​ Appeal to the people Critical thinking and logic are important
(Argumentum ad populum) tools to distinguish facts from opinion.
An argument that appeals or
exploits people’s vanities, desire “The truth is always the strongest argument.
for esteem, and anchoring on The truth is always the strongest argument.”
popularity. - Sophocles
 again depending on the spirit's GOOD
L3: The Human Person as an Embodied KARMA or BAD KARMA (there is an
Spirit endless cycle of birth and rebirth)

A.​ The Human Person as an Humanity's basic goal in life is the liberation
Embodied Spirit of spirit:
: There are many beliefs of Moksha - freedom from rebirth. In this case,
transcendence, specifically: Taoism, moksha is an enlightened state wherein one
Kant's Transcendental Idealism, attains one's true selfhood and finds oneself
or Existentialist’s Authentic reunited with Brahman, the Ultimate Reality.
Existence; however, this lesson
shall focus on three main Self-knowledge is understood in the sense
philosophies: of morality and not in the sense of reason,
beliefs, and values
Hinduism, Buddhism, and (Real self - atman)
Christianity
-​ They believe in ONENESS of reality
Hinduism: Brahman is Selfhood - Bhagavad Gita
-​ Only Brahman is real, everything
Oldest: Eastern tradition, practiced by else is an illusory manifestation of it.
hundreds of millions of people for about
5000 years. Four primary values:

According to Hinduism, human beings Artha - achieving wealth

have a dual nature - the soul (spiritual) of Kama - pursuing pleasure or success
a person is a true reality, while a person's Dharma - fulfilling duties or social
body (empirical) is only temporary and obligations
ultimately an illusion that should be Moksha - enlightenment or religious
discarded so that the soul can be set free to responsibilities.
return to Atman.
Buddhism
Hindus generally believe that: From Tears to a Communal Compassion
The soul is eternal but is bound by the law
of Karma (action) of the material world - for Founded by Sidharta Gautama (the
them God allots rewards and punishment to Buddha), a prince from Sakya.
all beings according to their karma
(Puligandla, 1997) Clan in the Kingdom of Magadha (560 to
477 BC). He devoted his life to sharing his
Hinduism claims that humanity’s life is an dharma or way to salvation:
endless cycle—Samsara.
-​ A simple inner cultivation of right
Transmigration of Soul means a person's spiritual attitudes;
soul moves from animal to human to animal
or vice versa after dying and being born
 -​ A self-imposed discipline whereby Middle Way between extreme ascet
bodily desires would be channeled in self-indulgence (Puligandla 2007).
the right directions;
-​ Transcendence of the Buddha SPECIAL CONCEPT: NIRVANA
omitted any appeal to the gods as
currently conceived; and ST. AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO AND ST.
-​ Rejecting philosophical THOMAS AQUINAS
speculations and spur recourse to
ancient scriptures, outmoded ritu The Biblical God and Humanity
incantation.
-​ St. Augustine (354-430 CE),
The Four Noble Truth Leading to philosophy is amor sapiential, the
Eightfold Path taught by Sidharta love of wisdom; its aim is to
produce happiness. He also believes
Gautama to his followers: that wisdom is also substantially
existent as the divine Logos or
-​ Life is full of suffering. the very knowledge of God
-​ Suffering is caused by passionate manifested on Earth among human
desires, lusts, and cravings beings.
caused by the bodies and emotions -​ In the fifth century, Augustine's
of people. writing was considered the most
-​ Only as these emotions, desires, influential in the early medieval
and wants are obliterated will period - Theistic Hypothesis.
suffering cease.
-​ Such eradication of desire may be St. Thomas Aquinas, another medieval
accomplished only by following the philosopher, claims that all creatures, only
Eightfold Path of earnest endeavor. human beings alone, have the power to
transform themselves and things for the
Right Means: better.
Right Belief, Right Aspiration, Right Speech,
Right Conduct, Right Endeavor, Right :Summa Contra Gentiles and Summa
Mindfulness, Right Meditation. Theologica.

With a single-hearted purpose, this :For him, human beings are moral agents
brotherhood of believers dedicated itself to: who have both spiritual and body elements.

-​ A life of purification, in total loyalty Will and Love

to the Buddha, the dharma, and the -​ For St. Augustine, we are free
Sangha; and physically but morally bound to
-​ A commitment to a life of poverty obey the law. God is the eternal law.
whose sole aim was the -​ Laws of Morality.
"evangelization" of India through its
dissemination of the doctrine of the B. Evaluating Own Limitations and the
Possibilities for the Transcendence
 or a significant person can open in us
Consider these examples (Edwards 1983): strength and courage.

1. Forgiveness - For Sebatu (2009), C. Distinguishing the Limitations and

negative minds, feelings, and attitudes Possibilities for Transcendence
are signs of masochism. They are our
own enemy. He recommended different 1. The spiritual that endures and is
methods of forgiveness: ultimately real.
2. Preoccupation with the inner Life - the
a. Counseling - requires active listening. road to enlightenment that stretches not
b. Talking to God - asking forgiveness by outward but inward.
talking to God. 3. Emphasis on the nonmaterial oneness of
c. Emmaus Method - highlights the social creation.
dimension of healing and reconciliation. 4. Acceptance of direct awareness as the
d. Forgiveness Method. only way to understand what is real.
5. A healthy respect for tradition, but never
Consider these examples (Edwards 1983): a slavish commitment to it.

• The Beauty of Nature - Aquinas argued "The highest activity a human being can
that since nothing cannot become attain is learning for understanding,
something on its own, he then states that because to understand is to be free."
there must be a Being who caused the big -​ Baruch Spinoza
bang and humanity's creation, the
Unmoved Mover, the One who caused
everything to exist. L4: The Human Person In The
Environment
• Vulnerability - To be invulnerable is
somehow inhuman. To be vulnerable is to Humanity's Well-being and their
be human. Environment
Paradigm shift:
• Failure - Our failure forces us to A change in worldview, a change in how
confront our weaknesses and reality, truth, and facts are viewed.
limitations. Such acceptance of our failures
makes us hope and trust that all can be (E.g. When the Catholic Church and
brought to good. Medieval Scholars mistakenly thought that
the world was flat, until Magellan and the
• Loneliness - can be rooted from our Age of Exploration proved this view wrong.)
sense of vulnerability and fear of death.
Lao Tzu
• Love - To love is to experience richness, -​ One of the most prominent
positivity, and transcendence. Whether in philosophers of nature.
times of ecstatic moments or struggles, the -​ Founder of Taoism
love for a friend, between family members, -​ Lao Tzu compared the Tao or The
Way to water, heaven, emptiness of
 a vessel, color, music, flavor, and -​ Humanity claims ownership or
even to weakness (Quito, 1991). authority over its environment.
-​ He claimed that weakness can -​ Unfair or unjust utilization of the
overcome strength (e.g. Water can environment results in ecological
erode stone, Air can penetrate a crises and disasters. (e.g. Quarrying
solid wall. or cutting down age-old trees could
justify our exploitative attitude
Two Main Frameworks toward nature.
Different views or concepts on nature or the -​ Emphasize the ecological or
environment. relational integrity that provides
meaning to our moral and values.
Anthropocentric Model -​ Prioritizes the ecosystem and
Human presupposes that the natural world
has intrinsic value.
Culture
-​ Nature is not only valued for the
Individualism survival of human species but is
also invaluable in itself.
Mind
-​ Love, respect, admiration for
Calculative nature, and a high regard for its
Human over/against environment value are essential.

Global/technological
B. Noticing Things that are not in the
Proper Place
Ecocentric Model
Nature Ancient Thinkers:
Anaximander
Wild
-​ He employed the term "boundless"
Holism to convey the further thought that
Nature/cosmos
nature is indeterminate boundless in
the sense that no boundaries
Body between the warm and cold or the
Relational most and dry regions are originally
present within it.
Earth/wisdom

Ecology over/against humans Pythagoras

-​ Claimed that order, harmony, and
A. Noticing Disorder in the Universe beauty and nature are embodiment
of the universe.
-​ Based on the premise that humans -​ Our relationship with the universe is
are essential and central to the connected to:
universe. Biophilia - love of other living
-​ Domination of the humanity is things.
linked to the domination of nature. Cosmophilia - love of other living
beings.
The Chinese Deep Ecology
-​ They see the universe as a -​ Ecological crisis is a result of
continuous whole like a chain of anthropocentrism. For this theory,
natural consequences. our controlling attitude extends to
-​ All occurrences in the universe are nature when in fact, we are part of
results of a transitional process due nature. Deep ecologists advocate
to the primeval pair: Yang and Yin. humanity to modify their
-​ The universe does not proceed anthropocentric attitude toward
onward but revolves without ecocentrism.
beginning or end.
Social Ecology
Modern Thinkers: -​ This model argued that ecological
Immanuel Kant crisis is a consequence of
-​ Critique of judgment - express that authoritarian social structures.
beauty is ultimately a symbol of -​ Destroying nature is a reflection in
morality (Kant, 1997). which few people prevail over others
-​ We must ignore practical motive or as the environment is exploited for
inclination that we have and profit or self-interest.
instead contemplate the object -​ Social ecologists call for small-scale
without being distracted by our societies, which recognize that
desires. humanity is linked with the
well-being of the natural world in
Herbert Marcuse which human life depends.
-​ Humanity has dominated nature.
-​ There can only be change if we will Ecofeminism
change our attitude toward our -​ This theory, on the other hand,
perception of the environment. contends that ecological crisis is a
consequence of male dominance.
George Mead -​ Male traits as in the anthropocentric
-​ As human beings, we have not only model are "superior" as opposed to
rights but also duties in other words, female traits ("inferior") as in the
rights contain in them duties. ecocentric model.
-​ When a person claims he or she -​ Domination works by forcing the
has rights over something, then other to conform to what is superior.
he/she automatically gets duties -​ Nature must be tamed, ordered,
related to the maintenance of and submit to the will of the
these rights. We are citizens of our superior.
community and how we react to it -​ For the adherents of this view,
also changes it. freeing nature and humanity means
removing the superior vs. inferior in
C. Care for the Environment Advocates human relations.
Health, Well-being, and Sustainability -​ There must be equality and
-​ Three different views regarding fairness instead.
environmental theories:
Erich Fromm
-​ German Humanistic Philosopher
-​ He believed that it is about time that
humanity ought to recognize not only
itself but also the world around it.
-​ As human beings, our biological
urge for survival turns into
selfishness and laziness. He
argued that as humans, it is also
inherent in us to escape the prison
cell of selfishness.