Sources of Error of Measurement

While performing physical measurements, it is important to note that the measurements

obtained are not completely accurate, as they are associated with uncertainty. Thus, in
order to analyze the measurement data, we need to understand the nature of errors
associated with the measurements. Therefore, it is imperative to investigate the causes or
sources systems and find out ways for their subsequent elimination. Two broad categories
of errors in measurement have been identified: systematic and random errors. of these
errors in measurement.
1.Systematic or Controllable Errors
2. Random Error
• Systematic or Controllable Errors
• A systematic error is a type of error that deviates by a fixed amount from the true value
of measurement. These types of errors are controllable in both their magnitude and
their direction, and can be assessed and minimized if efforts are made to analyze them.
In order to assess them, it is important to know all the sources of such errors, and if
their algebraic sum is significant with respect to the manufacturing tolerance, necessary
allowance should be provided to the measured size of the workpiece. Examples of such
errors include measurement of length using a metre scale, measurement of current with
inaccurately calibrated ammeters, etc. When the systematic errors obtained are
minimum, the measurement is said to be extremely accurate.
• The following are the reasons for their occurrence:
• 1. Calibration errors
• 2. Ambient conditions
• 3. Deformation of workpiece
• 4. Avoidable errors
• Calibration Errors

• Calibration error is the difference between the actual value of a physical

quantity and the value measured by a sensor. It can result from various factors,
such as sensor drift, nonlinearity, hysteresis, noise, interference, or
environmental conditions. Calibration error can be reduced by using appropriate
calibration methods, standards, and procedures, and by performing regular
calibration checks and adjustments.
• A small amount of variation from the nominal value will be present in the actual
length standards, as in slip gauges and engraved scales. Inertia of the instrument
and its hysteresis effects do not allow the instrument to translate with true
fidelity. Hysteresis is defined as the difference between the indications of the
measuring instrument when the value of the quantity is measured in both the
ascending and descending orders. Calibration curves are used to minimize such
variations. Inadequate amplification of the instrument also affects the accuracy
• Ambient Conditions
• It is essential to maintain the ambient conditions at internationally accepted values of
standard temperature (20 ºC) and pressure (760 mmHg) conditions. A small difference of
10 mmHg can cause errors in the measured size of the component. The most significant
ambient condition affecting the accuracy of measurement is temperature. An increase in
temperature of 1 ºC results in an increase in the length of C25 steel by 0.3 µm, and this is
substantial when precision measurement is required. In order to obtain error-free results, a
correction factor for temperature has to be provided. Therefore, in case of measurements
using strain gauges, temperature compensation is provided to obtain accurate results.
Relative humidity, thermal gradients, vibrations, and CO2 content of the air affect the
refractive index of the atmosphere. Thermal expansion occurs due to heat radiation from
different sources such as lights, sunlight, and body temperature of operators.
• Deformation of Workpiece
• Any elastic body, when subjected to a load, undergoes elastic deformation. The
stylus pressure applied during measurement affects the accuracy of measurement.
Due to a definite stylus pressure, elastic deformation of the workpiece and
deflection of the workpiece shape may occur, as shown in Fig.. The magnitude of
deformation depends on the applied load, area of contact, and mechanical
properties of the material of the given workpiece. Therefore, during comparative
measurement, one has to ensure that the applied measuring loads are same.
•
• Avoidable Errors
• These include the following:
• Datum errors
• Datum error is the difference between the true value of the quantity being measured and the
indicated value, with due regard to the sign of each. When the instrument is used under
specified conditions and a physical quantity is presented to it for the purpose of verifying the
setting, the indication error is referred to as the datum error.
• Reading errors
• These errors occur due to the mistakes committed by the observer while noting down the
values of the quantity being measured. Digital readout devices, which are increasingly being
used for display purposes, eliminate or minimize most of the reading errors usually made by
the observer.
• Errors due to parallax effect
• Parallax errors occur when the sight is not perpendicular to the instrument scale or the
observer reads the instrument from an angle. Instruments having a scale and a pointer are
normally associated with this type of error. The presence of a mirror behind the pointer or
indicator virtually eliminates the occurrence of this type of error.
• Effect of misalignment
These occur due to the inherent inaccuracies present in the measuring instruments. These errors
may also be due to improper use, handling, or selection of the instrument. Wear on the
micrometer anvils or anvil faces not being perpendicular to the axis results in misalignment,
leading to inaccurate measurements. If the alignment is not proper, sometimes sine and cosine
errors also contribute to the inaccuracies of the measurement.
• Zero errors
When no measurement is being carried out, the reading on the scale of the instrument should be
zero. A zero error is defined as that value when the initial value of a physical quantity indicated
by the measuring instrument is a non-zero value when it should have actually been zero. For
example, a voltmeter might read 1 V even when it is not under any electromagnetic influence.
This voltmeter indicates 1 V more than the true value for all subsequent measurements made.
This error is constant for all the values measured using the same instrument. A constant error
affects all measurements in a measuring process by the same amount or by an amount
proportional to the magnitude of the quantity being measured
Reduction of systematic errors
1.Careful instrument design
Careful instrument design is the most useful weapon in the battle against environmental
inputs, by reducing the sensitivity of an instrument to environmental inputs to as low a level
as possible. For instance, in the design of strain gauges, the element should be constructed
from a material whose resistance has a very low temperature coefficient (i.e. the variation of
the resistance with temperature is very small). However, errors due to the way in which an
instrument is designed are not always easy to correct, and a choice often has to be made
between the high cost of redesign and the alternative of accepting the reduced measurement
accuracy if redesign is not undertaken.
2. Calibration
Therefore, in order to find out and eliminate any systematic error, it is required to calibrate
the measuring instrument before conducting an experiment. Calibration reveals the presence
of any systematic error in the measuring instrument
Manual correction of output reading
In the case of errors that are due either to system disturbance during the act of
measurement or due to environmental changes, a good measurement technician
can substantially reduce errors at the output of a measurement system by
calculating the effect of such systematic errors and making appropriate correction
to the instrument readings. This is not necessarily an easy task, and requires all
disturbances in the measurement system to be quantified. This procedure is
carried out automatically by intelligent instruments
Intelligent instruments
Intelligent instruments contain extra sensors that measure the value of
environmental inputs and automatically compensate the value of the output
reading. They have the ability to deal very effectively with systematic errors in
measurement systems, and errors can be attenuated to very low levels in many
cases.
Random Error
• Random errors provide a measure of random deviations when measurements of a physical quantity
are carried out repeatedly. When a series of repeated measurements are made on a component
under similar conditions, the values or results of measurements vary. Specific causes for these
variations cannot be determined, since these variations are unpredictable and uncontrollable by the
experimenter and are random in nature. They are of variable magnitude and may be either positive
or negative. When these repeated measurements are plotted, they follow a normal or Gaussian
distribution. Random errors can be statistically evaluated, and their mean value and standard
deviation can be determined. These errors scatter around a mean value. If n measurements are
made using an instrument, denoted by v1 , v2 , v3 , …, v n , then arithmetic mean is given as
• Random errors can be minimized by calculating the average of a large number of
observations. Since precision is closely associated with the repeatability of the measuring
process, a precise instrument will have very few random errors and better repeatability.
Hence, random errors limit the precision of the instrument. The following are the likely
sources of random errors:
• 1. Presence of transient fluctuations in friction in the measuring instrument
• 2. Play in the linkages of the measuring instruments
• 3. Error in operator’s judgement in reading the fractional part of engraved scale divisions
• 4. Operator’s inability to note the readings because of fluctuations during measurement
• 5. Positional errors associated with the measured object and standard, arising due to small
variations in setting
• 6.Environmental noise (Bckground)
Difference between systematic and random
error