1) Introduction:

Throughout history, stars have been more than just points of light in the night sky; they have
guided navigators, inspired legends, and fuelled scientific curiosity. Each star’s light carries a
story, a beacon from the distant past, illuminating the vast and mysterious universe. In this
investigation, I am focused on a particular aspect of stellar research: the periodic variations in a
star's brightness over time. These variations are not mere fluctuations but can provide critical
insights into the star's physical properties and dynamic processes. For instance, changes in
brightness can indicate the presence of orbiting planets, reveal details about the star’s rotation or
pulsation, and offer clues about its evolutionary state. The motivation behind studying these
brightness variations is rooted in the quest to decode the subtle yet significant patterns hidden
within the star’s light. By analysing how a star's brightness shifts at different times, we can
uncover the underlying periodicities and behaviours that are not immediately apparent. This
process involves breaking down the star's brightness data using Fourier series, a mathematical
technique that allows us to decompose complex signals into simpler sine and cosine components.

Through this detailed examination, we aim to not only enhance our understanding of the star's
internal processes but also demonstrate how sophisticated mathematical tools can be applied to
real-world astronomical phenomena. This research represents a critical step in bridging the gap
between observational data and theoretical models, providing a deeper insight into the complex
and dynamic nature of stars.

1.1) Objective:

The objective of this Internal Assessment is to model the periodic variations in a star's brightness
using Fourier series. By analysing a data set that records the star's brightness at various times
over a 24-hour period, this investigation seeks to derive a mathematical model that accurately
represents these variations. The ultimate goal is to uncover underlying patterns in the star's
brightness and to demonstrate the application of Fourier series in interpreting astronomical
phenomena.
1.2) Rationale:

Understanding stellar brightness is central to astrophysics, as it provides insights into a star's

physical properties and behaviour. By applying Fourier series, a mathematical tool designed for
analysing periodic data, this investigation offers a deeper understanding of the factors
influencing a star's brightness. This approach highlights the practical application of mathematical
theory while contributing valuable insights to the broader field of astrophysics.

1) Data Description and Usage

The dataset provides observations of a star's brightness at various times throughout the day. For
each specific time (in hours) the brightness of the star has been recorded. The index nnn
represents the sequence number of each observation, helping to identify and order the data
points.

This data is used to analyse how the star's brightness changes over time. By examining these
measurements, one can explore patterns, identify periodic trends, and model the brightness
variations to understand the star’s behaviour more comprehensively.

n Time(t) hours Brightness of star (Apparent Brightness – no units)

1 0 3.15
2 2 3.58
3 4 3.83
4 6 3.96
5 8 3.92
6 10 3.71
7 12 3.55
8 14 3.4
9 16 3.35
10 18 3.3
11 20 3.25
12 22 3.2
 3) Mathematical Exploration:

To model the star's brightness over time, we will employ Fourier series, a mathematical tool that
allows us to express a periodic function as a sum of sines and cosines. The Fourier series for a
function f(t) with period T is given by:

∞
2 πnt 2 πnt
f ( t )=ao + ∑ an cos cos ( )+b n sin sin( )
n=1 T T
Where:

● a 0 is the average value of the function over one period.

● a n , b n ​ are the Fourier coefficients for the cosine and sine components, respectively, for
each harmonic n .

To calculate a 0 :
N −1
1
a 0=
N
∑ f (t k )
k=0

To calculate a n :

( 2 πTn t )
N
2
a n=
N
∑ B ( ti ) cos cos i

i=1

To calculate b n :

( 2 πTn t )
N −1
2
b n=
N
∑ f ( t k ) sin sin k

k=0
3.1) Calculation :

Calculation of (a 0)

The constant term (a 0) is given by :

N
1
a 0=
N
∑ f ( tk )
k=1

where( N =12) ( number of data points ) .

1
Calculating(a 0): a 0= ( 3.15+3.58+3.83+3.96 +3.92+3.71+3.55+3.4+ 3.35+ 3.3+3.25+3.2 )
12

1
a 0= × 42.1=3.51
12

Calculation of (a n) ( CosineCoefficients )

The cosine coefficients(a n)aregiven by :

( 2 πTn t )
N
2
a n=
N
∑ f ( t k ) cos cos k

k=1

where( T=24) hours ( period ) .

a n=
2
12[3.15 cos cos (
2 π ⋅0
24 )
+ 3.58 cos cos
24 (
2 π ⋅2
)
+⋯ 3.2cos cos
2 π ⋅22
24 ( )]
Calculating each term :

a n=
2
12[3.15 cos cos ( 0 ) +3.58 cos cos(2 π ⋅2
24 )
+3.83 cos cos
2π ⋅4
24 (
+⋯+ 3.2cos cos )
2 π ⋅22
24 ( )]
a n=
2
12[3.15 ×1+3.58 ×cos cos
π
6 ()
+3.83 × cos cos
π
3 ()
+ ⋯+ 3.2× cos cos
11π
6 ( )]
a n=−0.15913

Calculation of (b n) ( Sine Coefficients )

The sine coefficients(b n) are givenby :

( 2 πTn t )
N −1
2
b n=
N
∑ f ( t k ) sin sin k

k=0

b n=
2
12 [
3.15 sin sin(2 π ⋅0
24 )+3.58 sin sin
2 π ⋅2
24 ( )
+⋯+3.2 sin sin
2 π ⋅22
24 ( )] Calculating each term :
b n=
2
12 [ ()
3.15 sin sin ( 0 ) +3.58 sin sin
π
6
+3.83 sin sin
π
3 ()
+⋯+3.2 sin sin
11 π
6 ( )]
b n=−0.07876

Calculation of Modelled Brightness :

The general formula for calculating the modelled brightness is given by :

[ ( 2 πTnt )+b sin sin ( 2 πTnt )]

N
B ( t )=a0 + ∑ an cos cos n
n=1

Modelled Brightness Calculation at(t=0)for (n=1)

(a 0=3.51667)

(a 1=−0.15913)

(b 1=−0.0786)

[ ( 2 πT nt )+ b si ( 2 πTnt )]
N
B ( t )=a0 + ∑ an co n
n=1

( 2 πTn ⋅0 )+ b si ( 2 πTn ⋅0 )
N
B ( 0 )=a0 + ∑ a n co n
n=1
 N
B ( 0 )=a0 + ∑ a n
n=1

Substitute theValues for(n=1):

B ( 0 )=a0 +a1 co ( 2 π ⋅1⋅0

T ) +b si (
1
2 π ⋅1 ⋅0
T )
B ( 0 )=3.51667+ (−0.15913 ) ⋅1+ (−0.0786 ) ⋅0

B(0)=3.51667−0.15913
B(0)=3.35754

4) Results :

Using the Fourier series model, the brightness of the star at each time t is calculated based on the
model's coefficients. This involves applying the Fourier series formula, which combines
sinusoidal components to approximate the periodic variations in brightness. The calculated
modelled brightness values for each time instance are then plotted. This plot visually represents
how the Fourier series captures the periodic patterns in the star's brightness, allowing for an
analysis of the star’s behaviour over the observed period.

OBSERVED MODELLED
n Time(t) hours BRIGHTNESS an bn BRIGHTNESS
1 0 3.15 0.525 0 3.357539597
2 2 3.58 0.298608 0.51657 3.339473738
3 4 3.83 -0.63833 0.001017 3.368839558
4 6 3.96 0.659997 -0.0021 3.437776301
5 8 3.92 -0.32967 -0.56406 3.527830718
6 10 3.71 -0.61831 0.004924 3.6148967
7 12 3.55 -0.59163 0.006596 3.675668091
8 14 3.4 -0.2906 -0.48648 3.693877376
9 16 3.35 0.558231 -0.01067 3.664650222
10 18 3.3 -0.54984 0.013138 3.595810266
11 20 3.25 0.284413 0.46099 3.50578485
12 22 3.2 0.533006 -0.01868 3.41867232
Interpretation :

The analysis of the star’s brightness data shows that the Fourier series model is a strong fit for
describing its changes over time. The brightness values predicted by the model are very close to
the actual observed values, suggesting that the model does a good job of capturing how the star’s
brightness fluctuates. This close agreement indicates that the model effectively represents the
regular pattern of these changes.

The model’s predictions match well with the observed trends, meaning it successfully mirrors the
periodic nature of the star’s brightness. Overall, the model performs very well, with predicted
values being close to the observed ones. There is a slight difference at t=6 hours, where the
model slightly overestimates the brightness compared to what was observed. Even with this
small difference, the model’s performance is still impressive.

The observed data shows a peak at t=6 hours, followed by a decrease. The Fourier series model
also captures this peak and the drop that follows, which supports the model’s ability to represent
the periodic behaviour of the star’s brightness. The close match between the model’s predictions
and the observed data highlights how well the Fourier series reflects the star’s brightness
variations.

Conclusion

The Fourier series model has been very useful for studying the star's changing brightness. By
using this model, we were able to estimate the star's brightness over time and found that it does a
good job of showing the periodic patterns. The results show that the model's predictions are very
close to the actual measurements, proving that the Fourier series is a reliable method for this kind
of analysis. The model accurately reflects the star’s brightness, including when it reaches its peak
and then decreases.

The small differences between the predicted and observed values suggest that the Fourier series
model is strong enough to understand how the star’s brightness changes. This success not only
shows how good the Fourier series is at capturing periodic behaviour but also gives us valuable
insights into the star's patterns.

Overall, using the Fourier series model has helped us better understand the star's brightness
changes, confirming that it’s a good tool for this kind of study. The close match between the
model's results and the real data highlights how accurate this approach is and its potential for use
in other areas where data changes periodically.
Bibiliography :

1)
Rucinski, S. M. (1997). Fourier analysis of light curves for contact binaries.
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 109(728), 1340-1352.
https://doi.org/10.1086/133969
2)
Eric D Hoker , William D Huke. (2018) Fourier Series of Modular Graph Function.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnt.2018.04.012
3) Mustain Ramli (2024) Statistical inference on nonparametric regression model with
approximation of Fourier series function: Estimation and hypothesis testing
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mex.2024.102922