BATTERY

A battery is a portable energy source with three basic components- anode (the negative part), cathode
(the positive part), and electrolyte.
A battery is a device consisting of two or more galvanic cells connected in series or parallel, which
convert chemical energy into electrical energy through redox reactions.

Classification of Batteries

Batteries are classified as primary (non-rechargeable), secondary (rechargeable) and reserve (inactive
until activated):
Primary battery
Primary batteries are those which are constructed by joining two or more galvanic cells in series or
parallel. They produce electrical energy as long as the active materials are present. These are not
rechargeable batteries and are to be discarded after the use.

Example: Dry cell. Zn-MnO2, Ag2O-Zn battery

Secondary battery
Secondary batteries are those which are constructed by joining two or more galvanic cells in series or
parallel. They produce electrical energy at the expense of free energy of active materials. After
discharge, the active materials can be restored back at respective electrodes on recharging. The
recharging of the battery is done by passing current through it in the opposite direction of the
discharge is known as secondary battery.

Example: Lead acid battery, NiMH battery, Ni-Cd battery the battery can be recharged and

Reserve battery
The reserve batteries are also called as high current batteries, in which active materials are isolated
from electrolyte due to their reactivity and are brought into contact whenever high potential is
required for application..
Example: Magnesium-water activated batteries, zinc-silver oxide batteries, etc.

Characteristics of a battery

Cell potential / Voltage

The cell potential or voltage of the battery is determined theoretically, E cell = (EC – EA) - ηA – ηC - iRcell
Where EC & EA are reduction potential of cathode and anode, ηA & ηC are over potential at the anode and
cathode and iRcell is the internal resistance.
To attain the maximum cell potential or voltage from the battery, difference in the standard electrode
potential must be high, the electrode reaction must be fast to minimize the over potential and internal
resistance must be low.

Current
Current is “the measure of the rate of flow of charges in a battery”.
To attain the maximum current from the battery, difference in the standard electrode potential must be
high, the electrode reaction must be fast to minimize the over potential and internal resista nce must be
low.
Capacity
Capacity of the battery is “The total amount of electricity that is produced from a battery until the
failure of battery is called capacity of the battery. Capacity of the battery is expressed in Ampere
hours (Ah).”

The capacity is determined by faradays relation, C = WnF/M, where W and M is weight and mass of the
active material respectively and n is the number of moles of the electro active material.
Electrical storage density
Electrical storage density is “the Amount of electrical energy stored per unit weight of the battery.”
The weight of the battery includes mass of the electrolyte, current collector and other elements.
Lighter the weight of the elements leads to high storage density.

Energy density
Energy efficiency is “the amount of energy available from the battery to its mass”. It is given by
IEt
Energy Density =
w

Where “I” is the current drawn from the battery at fixed voltage “E” from time duration “t” and “w” is the
weight of the battery

Energy efficiency
It is the ratio of energy released on discharge to the energy required on recharge. Higher the
efficiency, very good is the battery.
% Energy efficiency=Energy released during discharge x 100
Energy required during recharge

Cycle life

Cycle life of the battery is “The total number of discharge and recharge cycles that are possible
before the failure of the battery”. It is applicable only to secondary battery, higher the cycle life,
better is the battery life.

Shelf-life
Shelf life of the battery is “The duration of storage of a battery without self discharge is known as
shelf life of a battery”. It referred to storage duration of battery. If shelf life is high, better is the
battery.

Silver oxide-Zinc battery

Construction:
Silver oxide zinc battery is a primary cell available in small size as button cell. The cathode is
generally composed of monovalent silver oxide with added graphite to improve conductivity. The anode is
zinc powder mixed with a gelling agent dissolved in KOH alkaline electrolyte. The anode and cathode are
separated by a combination of layers of plastic membrane, cellophane (thin transparent sheet made of
cellulose) and absorbent fibers like rayon or nylon. The two are taken in nickel-plated steel cup. The anode
is covered with a sheet at the top made up of laminated layers of copper, tin, steel and nickel. An insulating
 gasket prevents contact between the two.
Working:
The cell reaction involves the oxidation of Zinc metal at the anode to
produce positively charged Zinc ions (Zn2+) and electrons (e-). Zn2+
ions go into the electrolyte to form stable ZnO. Electrons travel
through the external circuit and arrive at the cathode where
monovalent silver ions reduces to silver liberating energy.

During discharge the following reaction takes place

𝐴𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒: 𝑍𝑛 + 2𝑂𝐻 − → 𝑍𝑛𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 2𝑒 −

𝐴𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒: 𝐴𝑔2O + 𝐻2O+2𝑒 − → 2𝐴𝑔 + 2𝑂𝐻 − + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑍𝑛 + 𝐴𝑔2O → 𝑍𝑛𝑂 + 2𝐴𝑔

Applications
Used in electronic watches, cameras, hearing aid instruments, etc,.

Nickel-metal hydride battery (Ni-MH)

Construction:
In a Ni-MH battery the electrodes are made up of nickel wire gauge. Anode is pasted with hydrogen
storage alloy in the form of metal hydride (VH2) and cathode is impregnated with nickel oxy hydroxide as
active material. Many positive and negative electrodes are connected with each in parallel and are soaked
in aqueous KOH electrolyte solution taken in steel container. The electrodes are separated using
polypropylene separator. Battery is sealed at the top with sealing washer.

Working:
During discharging the cell reaction involves the oxidation of
hydrogen from the metal hydride at anode to produce positively
charged hydrogen ions (H+) and electrons (e-). Electrons travel
through the external circuit and arrive at the cathode where nickel oxy
hydroxide reduces to nickel hydroxide. When discharge is
complete, the battery is charged by passing current from the
external source to restore the components at the respective electrodes.

When battery is discharging /charging, the following reactions take place at respective electrodes.

The output voltage is 1.35V.

Applications:
 Used in Cellular phones and laptops
 In Emergency lights and Power tools
 In electric vehicles

Lithium-ion battery

In lithium-ion battery (Li-ion battery) the lithium ions (electrons) move from the negative electrode
(anode) to the positive electrode (cathode) during discharge and back when charging.

Construction:
Li-ion battery is a secondary battery constructed by connecting many number of anode and cathode in
series. Anode is made up of carbon material with a copper foil as current collector. Cathode is made
up of lithium metal oxide with aluminum foil as current collector . The Common cathode material
is Lithium Cobalt Oxide, Lithium Manganese Oxide or Lithium Iron Phosphate. Electrolyte is
made of lithium salts dissolved in organic solvent (LiPF 6, LiBF4 or LiClO4 in an organic solvent,
such as ether,). The electrodes are separated with polypropylene and placed in electrolyte taken in
container.
The most common lithium-ion batteries have an anode of carbon (C) and a cathode of lithium
cobalt oxide (LiCoO2).

Working:
During discharge, the lithium ions are detached from the anode and travel through the electrolyte
to the cathode. This releases the electrons which flow through an external wire, providing the
electric current. At cathode Li ions reduces and form LiCoO2 .

During charging and discharging the following reactions takes place

When the cathode becomes full of lithium ions, the reaction stops and the battery is flat. Then the
battery is recharged. The external electric charge that we apply pushes the lithium ions back into
the anode from the cathode.
During discharging and charging the following reactions takes place

Application:
 The Li-ion batteries are used in mobile phones, cameras, calculators, LCD TVs, pagers, to operate
laptop computers and aerospace application