Department of Chemistry P E S C E, Mandya

MODULE1:SENSORS AND ENERGYSYSTEM

Sensors: Introduction, working, principle and applications of Conductometric sensors,

Electrochemical sensors, Thermometric sensors (Flame photometry) and Optical sensors
(colorimetry). Sensors for the measurement of dissolved oxygen (DO). Electrochemical
sensors for the pharmaceuticals. Electrochemical gas sensors for SOx and NOx. Disposable
sensors in the detection of biomolecules and pesticides.
SENSORS

The sensor is device that interacts with a specific chemical or biological species (analyte),detectsit
and measure its physical/ chemical information into measurable electrical signal proportional to its
quantity

Schematic diagram of components of sensors

Components of Sensors:
1. Receptor: it is a chemical element which is capable of interacting with analyte specifically
and selectively. It produces signal corresponding to interaction in the form of change in
potential, conductivity heat, pH etc.
2. Transducers: Transducers is used to convert the signal created by the receptor-analyte
interaction into a readable value.
3. Electrical signals and Display: The electronic system analyses the signal given by the
transducer, converts the signal into digital form. These signals are then displayed.

Electrochemical Sensors:
Electrochemical sensors are devices that detect and measure the concentration of a target analyte
by converting the effect of electrochemical reaction between analyte and electrode surface into an
electrical signal.

These sensors use electrode as transducer component. The main components of electrochemical
sensors are working or sensing electrode, electrolyte, counter and reference electrode. Electrolyte
is a part of the electrochemical Sensors and role is to transport charge within the sensors, contact
all electrode effectively, it is stable under all conditions.

Dr Prashanth P A. Page 1
 Department of Chemistry P E S C E, Mandya
Workingofan electrochemicalsensor
 Electrochemical sensor consists of a transducer element covered by a recognition element.
 The recognition element interacts with target analyte and signal is generated.
 Electrochemical transducers transform the chemical changes in to electrical signals
 The electric signals are related to the concentration of analyte.
 Electrochemical sensing always requires a closed circuit. Current must flow to make a
measurement. Since we need a closed loop there should be at least two electrodes.

Applications:
1. Theoxygensensorsareusedtodeterminedissolvedoxygeninboilerwaterandtomonitor
dissolved oxygen concentrations in hydrogen fuel cell.
2. Used insecurity and defence applications like detection of toxic gases.
3. Used in water analysis and environmental monitoring.
4. Used in diagnostic and health care applications.
5. Used in soil parameter analysis and in agricultural applications.

Note: Types of electrochemical sensors

1. Potentiometric Sensors:
In this sensor change in potential during chemical interaction between receptor and
analyte is measured using indicator electrode and reference electrode. Indicator
electrode is used to measure the change in the potential due to redox reaction
occurring on the surface of the electrode.
2. Amperometric Sensors:

ConductometricSensors

Conductometric sensors are chemical sensors determines concentration of analyte on the basisof
measurement of changes in electrical conductivity when a specific analyte interacts between the
electrodes.

It involves the determination of the concentration of

analyte based on the measurement of changes occur in
electrolyte solution. Here electrodes are used to measure
the conductance of the electrolyte. Conductance is
depending on
 No. of ions
 Mobility of ions

Dr Prashanth P A. Page 2
Department of Chemistry P E S C E, Mandya
Workingofconductometric sensors
 Transducer used in conductometric sensor is called as conductivity cell.
 It is made of two platinum foils with unit cross sectional area and unit distance between
them. Volume between two electrodes is 1cm3.
 Conductance of unit volume of the solution is called as specific conductance.
 There will be change in specific conductance of solution when there is change in number
of ions or type of ion. This change is measured using conductivity cell.
 The conductivity is a result of dissociation of an electrolyte, into ions. The migration of the
ions is induced by an electrical field.
 When a potential difference is applied to the electrodes, there is an electrical field within
the electrolyte, so the positively charged ions move towards cathode and negatively
charged ions are move towards anode.
 Thus, the current in the electrolyte is conducted by the ion movement towards the
electrodes where the ions are neutralized and isolated as neutral atoms or molecules.
 This chemical change is recognized by working electrode or transducers and converts this
chemical change into electrical signal.
Applications:
1. Used to estimate acid, base and mixture in the sample
2. Used to check ionic impurities in water sample
3. Used to measure acidity or alkalinity of sea water and fresh water
4. Conductometric biosensors are used in biomedicine, environment monitoring,
biotechnology and agricultural related applications.
Optical Sensors:
1. These sensors based on the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with the chemical
species. Commonly UV-Visible-Infrared electromagnetic radiations are used. In an
optical sensor, the optical signal arises from the interaction of the analyte with an
incident radiation. This interaction could results in absorption, emission, scattering
and reflection of light. The intensity of the radiation gives the information on the
concentration of the analyte.
2. Optical sensors are used to determine the concentration of coloured solution. It is
based on the measurement of absorbance of the coloured solution at particular
wavelength. It is governed by Beer-Lambertz law.
3. The optical sensors components are light source, filters, photo cell and display system.

Working:
A monochromatic light is passing through analyte at particular wavelength. A part of light
is absorbed by the analyte. The absorbance depends on the concentration of the solution and
the path length of the light through the solution. The photocell converts emitted light into
electrical signal these signals are recorded and displayed.

Dr Prashanth P A. Page 3
Department of Chemistry P E S C E, Mandya
Schematic diagram is as follows

Source: tungsten bulb or lamp is used as a light source.

Filter: It is a device to provided sired wave length range
Sample cell: sample is hold in glass cell.
Photocell: Converts the emitted light into electrical signal.
Applications:
 Used in the determination of any chemical species which can interact with electromagnetic
radiations
 Can be used in environmental ,pharmaceuticals, food related applications

Thermometric Sensors:
It is based on the measurement of thermal changes during the interaction between analyte and receptor.

Working:
Main component is a small tubular catalytic reactor fitted with a temperature transducer. Analyte
is fed into the reactor. The wall of the reactor is coated with a catalyst which is capable of
catalyzing the reaction, liberating the heat energy. Heat liberated is quantified by transducer and
convert into voltage and fed to the data storage and processing unit.
The two main transducers which convert change in temperature into an electric signal are
1. Resistive transducers: Most commonly used resistive transducer is the thermistor. It is a
semiconductor device made up of oxides of transition metals.
2. Thermocouple: It is a device which converts the temperature difference into an electrical
voltage.

Applications:
Used in determination of metabolites, bio process monitoring and environmental control and
determination of combustible gases

Electrochemical sensors for the pharmaceuticals

Electrochemical detection occurs at the interface between an analyte (diclofenac) of interest and
the working electrode to which apotential is applied with respect to the reference electrode, while
the corresponding current is measured.
Electrochemical sensors for detection of diclofenac
Working electrode: Carbon coated with MWCNT or Graphene
Counter Electrode: Carbon coated with MWCNT or Graphene

Dr Prashanth P A. Page 4
Department of Chemistry P E S C E, Mandya
Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl
When the sample containing diclofenac is put in the sensor, oxidation of diclofenac occurs on the
surface of the sensing electrode. The change in potential of the reaction gives the concentration of
diclofenac.

Electrochemical sensors for detection of hydrocarbons (1-Hydroxypyrene)

Working electrode: Carbon coated with chromium containing metal organic frame work) Cr-
MOF) and Graphene Oxide (Composite)
Counter Electrode: Carbon coated with chromium containing metal organic frame work) Cr-
MOF) and Graphene Oxide (Composite)
Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl
When the sample containing 1- Hydroxypyrene is put in the sensor, oxidation of 1-
Hydroxypyrene occurs on the surface of the sensing electrode. The change in potential of the
reaction gives the concentration of 1- Hydroxypyrene.

Sensors for the measurement of dissolved oxygen (DO):

The oxygen present in the water in dissolved form is called as dissolved oxygen.

Electrochemical Sensors:
In electrochemical sensors, two electrodes are used.
Anode: Zn, Pb or any other active metal
Cathode : Working electrode-Ag
Electrolyte: KOH, NaOH or any other inert electrolyte
Membrane: Teflon

Working:
The difference in potential between the anode and the cathode should be at least 0.5V.
When electrode is dipped in water to measure DO, anode undergoes oxidation liberating electrons
2𝑍𝑛 → 2𝑍𝑛2+ + 4𝑒 −
Atcathode ,DO undergoreduction.Agcathodeisinert,itonlypasseselectronstooxygenfor reduction.
𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 4𝑒 − → 4𝑂𝐻−
Overall reaction is

Dr Prashanth P A. Page 5
 Department of Chemistry P E S C E, Mandya
2𝑍𝑛 + 𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝑍𝑛(𝑂𝐻)2
The current produced by the reduction of oxygen at cathode is proportional to the oxygen in the
water sample.

Electrochemical gas sensors for SOx and NOx.

Construction:
Filters: Used to prevent unwanted contaminants, mainly particulate matter
Membrane: A gas-permeable membrane is used to regulate the gas flow into the sensors. It
allows only analyte gas to pass and prevent the leakage of the electrolyte.
Sensing electrode (or) working electrode: This electrode is made from a noble metal, such as
platinum or gold, and its surface is coated with suitable receptor
Counter electrode: This electrode is used to complete the circuit.
Reference Electrode: This electrode is placed close to the sensing electrode
Electrolyte: Electrolyte should be ionic conductor and chemically stable. Main role is, it
transports charge within the sensor, contact all electrodes effectively and solubilise the reactant
and product for efficient transport.

Sensors for SOX:

The sensors contains two or three electrodes
Sensing electrode: Au/Nafion
Electrolyte:0.5 MH2SO4

Working:

 Sensor uses a working electrode coated with electro catalyst such as Gold/ Nafion,
whichfacilitates the oxidation of SO2to H2SO4.
 Reference electrode is made of Ag/AgCl and Counter electrode is Platinum wire
 0.5MH2SO4 as an electrolyte solution is used to facilitate ion transport between the
electrodes.
 SO2 gas enters sensor through capillary diffusion barrier (small opening)and penetrates
through a hydrophobic membrane, finally gets adsorbed on the working electrode surface. 
 SO2undergoes oxidation to produce H2SO4 and generates an electrical current proportional
to its concentration in the sample. 
 The following oxidation reaction occurs on sensing electrode.
−
𝑆𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑆𝑂42 + 4𝐻 ∓ + 2𝑒 −
Concentration of SO2 present in sample is determined by measuring current flowing between the sensing
and counter electrodes.

Dr Prashanth P A. Page 6
Department of Chemistry P E S C E, Mandya
Sensors for NO2:
The sensors contain two or three electrodes.
Sensing electrode: Au, Pt/Nafion.
Electrolyte:10M H2SO4

Working:
 Sensor uses a working electrode coated with electro catalyst such as Gold/ Nafion,
whichfacilitates the reduction of NO2to NO.
 Reference electrode is made of Ag/AgCl and Counter electrode is Platinum wire
 10MH2SO4 as an electrolyte solution is used to facilitate ion transport between the
electrodes.
 NO2gas enters sensor through capillary diffusion barrier (small opening) and
penetratesthrough a hydrophobic membrane, finally gets adsorbed on the working
electrode surface.
 NO2reduced to NO and generates an electrical current proportional to its concentration in
the sample. 
 The following oxidation reaction occurs on sensing electrode.

𝑁𝑂2 + 2𝐻 + + 2𝑒 − → 𝑁𝑂 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
 Concentration of NO2 present in sample is determined by measuring current flowing
between the sensing and counter electrodes.

Sensors for NO:

The sensors contain two or three electrodes.
Sensing electrode: Au/NASICON.
Electrolyte: NaNO2

Working:
 Sensor uses a working electrode coated with electro catalyst such as Gold/ Nafion,
whichfacilitates the oxidation of NO to HNO3.
 Reference electrode is made of Ag/AgCl and Counter electrode is Platinum wire
 NaNO2 as an electrolyte solution is used to facilitate ion transport between the electrodes.
 NO gas enters sensor through capillary diffusion barrier (small opening) and penetrates
through a hydrophobic membrane, finally gets adsorbed on the working electrode surface.
 Then NO undergoes oxidation to produce HNO3 and generates an electrical current
proportional to its concentration in the sample. 
The following oxidation reaction occurs on sensing electrode
−
𝑁𝑂 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑁𝑂32 + 4𝐻 ∓ + 3𝑒 −

 ConcentrationofNOpresentinsampleisdeterminedbymeasuringcurrentflowingbetween the
sensing and counter electrodes.

Disposable sensors:
Disposable sensors are low-cost and easy-to-use sensing devices designed for short-term or rapid
single-point measurements.

Portable sensors used for on-spot analysis using disposable strip with receptor and electrode printed on
it is called disposable sensor.

Advantages of disposable sensors:

Dr Prashanth P A. Page 7
Department of Chemistry P E S C E, Mandya
 They transducer physical, chemical, or biological changes in their environment to an
analytical signal.
 Disposable sensors are biodegradable and sustainable
 They have a short duration of analysis and fast response times.
 It provides digitized chemical and biological information.
 Prevents the contamination of samples

The disposable sensors are a type of paper over which receptor and
electrodes are printed. Electrodes reference, working and counter
electrode and receptor is printed on a single platform as shown in the
fig. These electrodes are called screen-printed electrode and are main
components of disposable sensors.

Detection of Ascorbic acid.

Ascorbic acid is a chemical name of Vitamin-C, it is water soluble.
In the disposable strip, the sensing electrode, counter and reference electrode
are printed using Screen printing technology.
Working:
Active material is coated on sensing electrode must be capable of oxidizing ascorbic acid on its
surface.
The active surfaces of the counter electrode and working electrode have been coated with a conductive
ink of C (MWCNT) and modified with gold nanoparticles.
Reference electrode is Ag/AgCl

The sensor is immersed in the analyte. The analyte diffuses and adsorbed on the sensing electrode.
The sensing electrode oxidizes ascorbic acid into dehydroascorbic acid and produces electric
current or voltage and it is proportional to the concentration of the ascorbic acid.

Detection of pesticide such as Glyphosate by electrochemical oxidation method

Electrochemical Sensor for Glyphosate Detection
The sensor is a silicon-based chip comprising of three-electrode system. It is fabricated by electro
deposition technique.
Working Electrode: A gold electrode of 4mm diameter coated with 200nm thickness gold nanoparticles
Counter electrode: A gold electrode of 4mm diameter coated with 20nm thickness gold nanoparticles
Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl/Cl

Dr Prashanth P A. Page 8
Department of Chemistry P E S C E, Mandya
Electrolytes are added to increase the conductivity of the solution and minimizes the resistance between
the working and counter electrode.

Working:
The electrochemical detection is based on the oxidation of Glyphosate on gold working electrode.
A potential of 0.78V is applied on working electrode, there is a interaction between analyte and
electrode surface.
Glyphosate oxidizes on the working electrode brings a change in current in the electrolyte medium.
The change in the current is a measure of concentration of Glyphosate

*******************************

Dr Prashanth P A. Page 9