Dept of Chemistry – PESCE, MANDYA

MODULE-1.
Electronic materials and display system

Band theory of solids [Conductivity of solids]

This theory explains the mechanism of electric conduction in conductors, insulators, and
semiconductors based on energy bands in solids. According to “Neil Bohr's” theory, Electrons in
an isolated atom can have definite energy levels in the form of discrete lines, however, there are
significant changes in the energy levels when atoms are brought close together in solids.
Different atoms influence each other to such an extent that their outer shell constitutes one single
system of electrons common to the arrangement of atoms in a solid but the inner shell remains
the same and is not affected due to the interaction of the energy level at the outer shell which are
slightly altered. The electron in a solid occupies an energy level within the band.

Note: The band or energy occupied by valence electrons is called VB. Thus it is the highest
occupied band which may be partially or completely filled with V electrons
The empty band which is above the valence band is called the conduction band. Thus it is the
unfilled energy band and electrons can move easily through the band. The gap between these
bands is called the energy gap.
On the basis of Band theory of solids, there are three important conclusions

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Dept of Chemistry – PESCE, MANDYA

1. When the valence band and conduction band overlap in solids they are known as
conductors.
2. When the valence band and conduction band are separated by a large energy gap in a
solid they are known as insulators.
3. When the valence band and conduction band are separated by a small energy gap in
solids they are classified as semiconductors.

CONDUCTORS
Conductors are materials with plenty of free electrons which are available for electric
conduction.Itisduetotheoverlappingofthevalencebandandconductionband.Thusin

Conductors moving‘e’ constituent a current and there is no energy gap.

At room temperature, the valence band is completely filled and the conduction band is partially
filled with electrons. When an electric field is applied free electrons in the valence band absorb
energy and jump in the conduction band. The free electrons in the conduction band absorb extra
energy and travel against the field direction and thus participate in conduction. Hence
conductors conduct current even at lower temperature.

INSULATORS
Insulators are those materials in which free electrons are not available for electric conduction. It
is due to the separation of the valence band and conduction band by a large energy gap. The
conduction band is empty and the valence band contains tightly bound electrons. Hence a very
large amount of electric field is required to remove the electrons from the attractions of nuclei.
Hence such substances cannot conduct current even at high temperatures.

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Dept of Chemistry – PESCE, MANDYA

SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors are materials in which electric conduction is between those of pure conductors
and insulators. This is due to the separation of the valence band and conduction band by a small
energy gap. [7.1eV Silica0.72 Germanium]
The conduction band is empty and the valence band is almost filled with Valence Electrons. At
room temperature and at 0°, absolute free electrons are not available in the conduction band.
substance acts as an insulator to lower the temperature

When the temperature is increased, some of the electrons in the valence band absorb sufficient
thermal energy to jump to the conduction band and participate in electric conduction. When an
electron jumps from the Valence band to the conduction band a covalent bond is broken due to
thermal vibration, and a positive charge hole is formed in the valence band. As a result of these,
the number of electrons in the conduction band is exactly equal to the number of positively
charged holes created in the valence band. The conductivity in a semiconductor is due to the
movement of both positively charged holes and negatively charged electrons in the opposite
direction.
Eg:Silicon Carbide ,Lead Sulphide, Tellurium

Liquid Crystal Display(LCD)

Liquid crystal may be described as a distinct state of matter in which degrees of molecular
ordering lie in between the ordered crystalline state and the completely disorder liquid state.
Eg: cholesteryl benzoate
Composition of the Display
1. Glass plate
2. Liquid crystal material
3. Electrode made of titanium oxide
4. Polarizer Polarizing filter
5. Reflective surface

When light is passed through the polariser, the emitted light will have only one vibration which
is parallel to the crystallographic axis. If polarized light is passed through the one-mole polarizer,

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then the intensity of emerging light depends on the angle of rotation of the molecule on the
crystallographic axis.

CASE1: In the absence of an Electric Field

A liquid crystal is placed between two polarizers which are inclined to each other at an angle
similar to that of the rotation angle by liquid crystal. Hence it gives appearance to the display.

CASE2:In the presence of an Electric Field

If an electric field is applied between two polarizers then liquid crystal molecules will rearrange
themselves to the applied field, thus light passing through the first polarizer cannot pass through
the second polarizer and it gives a dark appearance to the display.

Working of Display

- When the electric field is not applied to any one of the segments then all the segments
appear bright and the numeric display will not display any numbers.
- If an electric field is applied to a,b,c,d and e segments of the number, then the liquid
crystal molecules in this part are aligned tothe external field, changing the rotation angle
of light and preventing the light passing through the second polarizer. Therefore a,b,c,d
and e segments will appear dark and the display will show the number 3.

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Dept of Chemistry – PESCE, MANDYA

Applications of LCD

LCD operate at low voltage and consumes less power, hence they are used in:
1. Watches, calculators, mobile, laptops and other electronic gadgets.
2. Used as indicators in automobile dashboards, traffic signals, advertisement boards,
petrol bunk indicators.
3. BP instruments, Digital thermometers, TV channel indicators.
4. PH meter, conductometer, potentiometer, analytical instrument.

Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED)

- The two layer OLED consists of a cathode and anode, in between them two organic
layers are present emissive layer and conducting layer.
- When voltage is applied to an OLED device through anode and cathode, the charges
carried are injected from the electrodes to the organic layers, anode insect holes (+ve
charges) and cathode injects electrons(-ve charges) to the system. The holes and
electrons are transported to an emission site and recombine organic materials in the
emissionsitewhichareexcitedbyrecombinationofholesandelectrons,whenthe

Excited organic material returns to its ground state the emission occurs.
Properties of OLED:
1. The display panels are very thin, light weight and flat.
2. They have a self emission property.
3. The display can produce sharp moving image due to fast response time.
4. Power consumption of the OLED display is very low.
5. They have more efficiency.

Applications o f OLED:
1. It is used in cell phones, digital computers, TV screens and computer monitors.
2. It is used as a backlight in cars.
3. In the future, news papers may use an OLED display to attract attention.

Quantum Light Emitting Diode (QLED)

- It is almost similar to OLED.
- Quantum dots are semiconducting nano crystalline materials with diameter usually2- 10
nm. They produce distinctive colors determined by the size of the particles.
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- The structure of QLED is similar to fundamental device of OLED, but the difference
is that light emitting is from Quantum dots(QD’s) such as cadmium selenide
nanoparticles(CdSe)

Properties of QLED
- Compared to organic luminescent materials, it is used in OLED quantum dot based
materials which have pure colors, longer life time, lower manufacturing cost and
lower power consumption.

Working of QLED
- The QDLED device consists of two electrons, anode and cathode. The QD layer
(cadmium selenide) is placed in between two electrodes. When voltage is applied, anode
injects holes (+ve charges) and cathode injects electrons (-ve charges) to the system.
- The holes and electrons are transported to an emission site and they recombine. QD
material in the emission site is exerted by recombination of holes and electrons when the
excited QD returns to the ground state, it emits photons. For better recombination
efficiency, a single layer of QD in colloidal form is used as an emissive layer.

Production of solar grade silicon by puller technique(czochralskimethod)

In this method single crystal is used as a seed. When the seed is used to grow single crystal from
polycrystalline silicon. Calculated amount of dopant (n type & p type) is added to polycrystalline
silicon taken in a quartz chamber and heated using RF power, (1420°C) source in an atmosphere
of argon, when the material melts, the temperature is lowered so that it is kept at the melting
point of the material. Single crystal silicon is attached to the tip of a puller rod. The rod is slowly
rotated and simultaneously pulled out. As the melt it pulled out , it solidifies and has the same
orientation and crystal structure as that of seed. The pull rate is maintained at 1.5-5 cm per hour
and rotation at 100 RPM which is further purified by zone refining.

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 Dept of Chemistry – PESCE, MANDYA

Advantages
1. It can produce single crystal in a large diameter.
2. Growth rate is high.
3. Dopant distribution is uniform.
Disadvantages
1. Temperature maintenance is difficult and crystal defection more.
2. Difficulty to maintain chemical homogeneity

Purification ofsilicon by zone refining

In this process of silicon rod is clamped vertically and heated by RF(radiofrequency)coil in a

reducing atmosphere. The RF coil is slowly moved from top to bottom. As the molten zone moves
down, the impurities also swept down with the molten material. When the process is repeated, all the
impurities concentrated at the bottom portion of the rod is cut and removed. In this method impurity
concentration can be decreased. Finally rod is removed by cutting. The pure silicon is cut into
wafers and doped suitably to get PN junction.

Advantages

1. Capable of producing large diameter crystals from which large diameter wafers can bec ut.
2. Lower production cost per wafer.
Disadvantages

1. Impurities such as oxygen and carbon from the quartz and graphite crucible which lower the minority
carrier diffusion length in the finished silicon wafer.
2. Less homogeneity in dopant concentration in axial position.

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Metal Finishing

Introduction: Metal finishing covers the wide range of processes carried out in order to modify
the surface properties of a metal. These processes involve deposition of a layer of another metal or
a polymer, conversion of a surface layer of atoms into oxide films which ultimately modify the
surface of the metal.

Definition: “It is a process of modifying surface properties of metals by the deposition of a layer of
another metal or polymer on its surface or by the formation of an oxide film”.

Technological importance of metal finishing:

The main technological importance of metal finishing include
[1] Imparting the metal surface to higher corrosion resistance.
[2] Providing electrical and thermal conducting surface.
[3] Imparting thermal resistance and hardness.
[4] In the manufacture of electrical and electronic components such as PCB’s, capacitors
contacts, etc.
[5] To increase the decorativeness of metal surface.

Electroplating

Definition: “It is a process of deposition of a metal by electrolysis, over the surface of substrate.
The substrate may be another metal, polymer, ceramic, or a composite”.

Electroplating of Nickel (Watts bath)

The majority of the nickel plating solution used for decorative applications is based on Watts formulations
developed by Oliver p. watts in 1916.

Pre-treatment: Before the application of the electroplated coatings, it is essential to clean the surface of
the base metal. The impurities present on the surface like grease, oil, oxide layer, dustetc are removed by
solvent cleaning or alkali cleaning or mechanical cleaning.

Bath composition: NiSO4.6H2O (240-300 g/L) + NiCl2.6H2O (30-90 g/L)

Current density: 2-7 A m-2

Temperature: 40-60 °C.

Buffer: Boric acid (H3BO3, 30-45 g/L)

PH: 3.5 - 4.5

Anode: Nickel

Cathode: Object to be electroplated.

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Mode of plating: The nickel sulphate is source of nickel and nickel chloride is an accelerating agent
which increases the conductivity thereby reducing voltage requirement. Boric acid is a buffer which
control the pH. During the electroplating nickel metal undergoes oxidation and forms Ni2+ ion. Ni2+ ion
undergoes reduction and forms Ni which gets deposited on the surface cathode. The reactions are as
follows,

At anode: N i N i 2+ + 2 e -

At cathode: Ni + 2e
2+ - Ni

Applications:
1. It offers a high luster finish, corrosion protection and wear resistance.
2. Used in the manufacture of hand tools and household items such as lighting and plumbing fixtures.

Electroless plating (Auto catalytic redox reaction)

Definition: “The process of depositing a metal over substrate by controlled chemical reduction of
metal ion by a reducing agent without using electric current is called electroless plating”
Metal ions + reducing agent Metal + oxidized product

Differences between electroplating and electrolessplating:

Property Electro plating Electroless plating
1) Driving force Passage of current Auto catalytic redox reaction
2) Anode A separate anode is used Catalytic surface of the
substrate acts as anode
3) Reducing agent Electrons bring about reduction Chemical reagents bring
about reduction
4) Applicability Applicable only to conductors Applicable to both
conductors and
nonconductors

Electroless plating of copper over PCB

Electroless plating of copper involves the following features.

1) Pretreatment and activation of the surface:
The surface to be plated is first degreased by using organic solvents followed by acid
treatment.
2) PCBs are activated by first dipping in Sncl2 solution containing HCl followed by dipping in
palladium chloride solution.

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Composition of the bath:

Coating solution : CuSO4.5H2O (15g/L)
Reducing Agent : Formaldehyde (8g/L)
: NaOH (15g/L) + Rochelle salt (14g/L)
Complexing agent : EDTA solution (20g/L)
PH 11
Temperature : 25 °c
Procedure:
A thin layer of copper is first electroplated over the PCB. Then selected
areas are protected by employing electroplated image and the remainder
of the plated copper is etched away so as to get required type of circuit
pattern. Usually double sided tracks are made in order to pack more
number of components in a small space. Finally, the connection
between 2 sides of PCB is made by drilling holes. The holes are
activated and followed by electroless copper plating through holes.

Chemical Reactions:
Anodic Reaction : 2HCHO + 4OH- 2 HCOO - + 2H2O + H2 + 2e-
Cathodic Reaction : Cu2+ + 2 e- Cu
Net reaction : Cu2+ + 2HCHO + 4 OH- Cu + 2HCOO- + 2H2O + H2

Note: Buffer is added because; above redox reaction involves the consumption of OH - ions, so the
pH of the solution decreases as the reaction proceeds.

Application:
[1] Widely used for metalizing printed circuit boards.
[2] For plating on non-conductors.
[3] As an undercoat for electroplating.
[4] For decorative plating on plastics.

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