GENERAL PHYSISCS 2

MS. SOPHIE ESPINOSA

[MIDTERMS] 2ND SEMESTER | S.Y. 2023-2024
● Series of processes that starts and ends at the
THERMODYNAMICS same conditions
● Example: Water Cycle. Refrigeration, Carbon
● Branch of physics that deals with the relationship
Cycle
between heat energy and other forms of energy
● Concerned with heat and its transformation to
REVERSIBLE PROCESS
mechanical energy.
● Literally means “moving or evolving heat”. ● The system and its surroundings can be returned
● Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot is considered as to their initial state before undergoing a process
the “Father of Thermodynamics”.
IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS
SYSTEM, SURROUNDING AND UNIVERSE ● The opposite of reversible process

LATENT HEAT
● Defined as the heat or energy that is absorbed or
released during a phase change of a substance
● Is defined as the heat or energy that is absorbed
or released during a phase change of a
substance.

DIFFERENT THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
OPEN SYSTEM ● It is a restatement of the law of conservation of
● Allows the exchange between both matter and energy which states that “energy cannot be
energy with the surroundings. created nor destroyed but can change into other
forms.
CLOSED SYSTEM
● Allows the exchange of energy but not matter
with the surroundings

ISOLATED SYSTEM
● An isolated system does not allow exchange of
● Q (Heat) is positive (+) when heat is added to the
both matter and energy with the surroundings
system and negative (-) when heat is removed
from the system.
CYCLE ● W (Work) is positive (+) when work is done by the
system and negative (-) when work is done on
the system

1
INTERNAL ENERGY 4 TYPES OF THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES

ISOCHORIC PROCESS
● is also called a constant volume process.
● Constant Thermodynamics Variable: Volume
● Since volume is constant, there is no work done
during an isochoric process. All the heat added to
the system goes into increasing its internal
energy.
● Isochor – the vertical line found in the PV
Diagram, represents isochoric process. (e.g.
heating in a closed rigid container)
● It is the total energy within a system.
● It is abbreviated using the symbol U.
● A substance contains internal energy.

PV DIAGRAM
● A graph of pressure versus volume is used
instead of a graph of force versus displacement.
● When a system changes from its initial to final
state, it may undergo a series of intermediate
states.
● This series of intermediate states between the
initial and final states is commonly termed as ISOBARIC PROCESS
path in thermodynamics. ● is also referred to as a constant pressure
process.
STATE VARIABLE ● Constant Thermodynamics Variable: Pressure
● variables that depend only on the initial and final ● The work done by the system, change in its
states and not on the path taken. internal energy, and the heat added to the
● This is the change in internal energy system are not zero in this process. The work
done during an isobaric process is equal to the
product of the constant pressure and the change
in volume.
● Isobar – the horizontal line that represents
isobaric processes in the PV Diagram.

PROCESS VARIABLES
● variables that depend on the path.
● Heat and Work are process variables.

THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
● is a change from initial state to a final state of a ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
system that usually involves a change in its
● is also called a constant temperature process.
pressure, volume, or temperature.
● Constant Thermodynamics Variable:
Temperature
● The change in internal energy is equal to zero.
Thus, the heat entering the system must be equal

2
 to the work done by the system. If the system ● limits the amount of work a heat engine can do
consists of ideal gas, the work done is an for a certain amount of heat. It may be stated in
isothermal process. three ways,
● Isotherm – the curved line of constant - Three Statements
temperature in the PV Diagram that represents ➔ Kelvin-Planck Statement
the isothermal processes. ➢ No heat engine can completely
convert heat energy to work.
➢ There is no 100% efficiency heat
engine.
➔ Clausius Statement
➢ Heat flows naturally from hot to cold
objects.
➔ Entropy Statement
➢ When a reversible process occurs,
the total entropy of the universe
remains the same.
➢ When an irreversible process
occurs, the total entropy of the
universe increases.
➢ Equivalently, the entropy of an
ADIABATIC PROCESS isolated system remains the same
or increases.
● is a process where there is no heat transfer
occurring between the system and its HEAT ENGINES
surrounding.
● Constant Thermodynamics Variable: No Heat ● A device that converts thermal energy to
Transfer mechanical energy.
● This could be achieved if the system is well .
insulated or that the process takes place very
fast, leaving no time for heat to flow between the
system and the environment.
● Adiabat – is the curve in the PV Diagram that
represents adiabatic processes.

● All heat engines make use of a substance inside

them that undergoes cooling and/or heating,
compression and/or expansion and sometimes
phase change.
- This substance is called the working
substance of the engine.
➔ Example: the working substance in a
steam engine is water, for a gasoline
engine, it is the gasoline-air mixture.

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

● “States that heat transfer occurs
spontaneously only from higher to lower
temperature bodies.”

3
● Two types of Heat Engine
- External Combustion
➔ It burns fuel outside the engine.
➔ Ex. Steam Engines
- Internal Combustion
➔ It burns fuel inside the engine.
➔ Ex. Gasoline Engine and Diesel Engine
● Efficiency of Heat Engines
- How much of the input heat is converted to
work determines the efficiency of a heat
engine.

SAMPLE PROBLEM
An engineer designs a heat engine operating between
70℃ and 120℃. What is the maximum efficiency of
this heat engine?

SAMPLE PROBLEM
Suppose that a car engine produces 581J of heat and
at the same time it exerts 57N of force to travel a
distance of 13m. Determine the efficiency of the car
engine.

HEAT PUMPS
● heat engines operating in reverse. A heat pump
takes heat from the cold reservoir and discards it
to the hot reservoir.
● Refrigerators and air conditioners are considered
heat pumps

CARNOT CYCLE DIFFERENCE OF HEAT ENGINE & HEAT PUMPS

● Maximum efficiency is obtained if all the
processes undergone by the working substance
of a heat engine are reversible.
● A hypothetical heat engine undergoing all
reversible processes is referred to as an ideal
heat engine or a Carnot engine. The Carnot
cycle consists of two reversible isothermal and
two reversible adiabatic processes.

4
 THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS MECHANICAL WAVES
● “States that the entropy of a perfect crystal is ● Waves that require a medium in order to transfer
zero when the temperature of the crystal is equal energy from their source
to absolute zero.”
● The third law of thermodynamics says:
- If an object reaches the absolute zero of
temperature (0 K = -273.15℃ = -459.67℉) its
atoms will stop moving.

ENTROPY
● Entropy is the Greek word for “transformation”.
● Proposed by German engineer Rudolf Clausius.
● The measure of the amount of disorder in a
system. LONGITUDINAL WAVES
- More disorder = more entropy ● waves where the particle motion is in the same
- More order = less entropy direction in which the wave is propagating

ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMIC

● In 1931, British physicist and astronomer Ralph
H. Fowler formulated the zeroth law of TRANSVERSE WAVES
thermodynamics after the first law and second ● motion in which all points on a wave oscillate
law had been in use for some time. along paths at right angles to the direction of the
● “If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium wave's advance.
with a third, they are also in thermal equilibrium
with each other.”
- Thermal Equilibrium
➔ condition where two substances in
physical contact with each other
become the same temperature. PERIODIC WAVES
● any repeating pattern with constant wavelength
and frequency.

SINUSOIDAL WAVES
● shows how the amplitude of a variable changes
with time.

MECHANICAL WAVES AND SOUNDS

SOUNDS
● A sound is a form of energy, just like electricity,
heat, or light. When you strike a bell, it makes a
loud ringing noise

TYPES OF WAVES

5
 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUNDWAVES ● The Formula for sound intensity is expressed as
● Sound as a waveform
- The waveform is a pictorial representation of
the pressure variation in the air, which
travels as sound
- P = sound power
AMPLITUDE - A = area
● Amplitude in light refers to the amount of energy
in an electromagnetic wave and its meaning is SOUND INTENSITY LEVEL
the same here. It refers to the distance of the ● The unit of sound intensity is expressed in
maximum vertical displacement of the wave from decibels (dB)
its mean position ● The formula of Sound Intensity Level is
expressed as
WAVELENGTH
● A sound wave is made of areas of high pressure
alternated by an area of low pressure. The
physical distance between two consecutive
peaks in a sound wave is referred to as the - I = sound intensity
wavelength of the sound wave. - Io = reference intensity
FREQUENCY/PITCH
EXAMPLES
● refers to the rate of the vibration of the sound
traveling through the air. This parameter decides
whether a sound is perceived as high-pitched or
low-pitched
● In sound, the frequency is also known as Pitch.
The frequency of the vibrating source of sound is
calculated in cycles per second

TIMBRE
● defined as the quality of a sound which is used
for differentiating two sounds when they are in
the same frequency.

REFLECTION VS REFRACTION VS DIFFRACTION

OF SOUND WAVES

REFLECTION
INTERFERENCE AND BEATS
● Responsible for the phenomenon of the echo.

REFRACTION WAVE INTERFERENCE

● Density of the medium in which light is traveling ● the phenomenon that occurs when two waves
changes. meet while traveling along the same medium.
The interference of waves causes the medium to
DIFFRACTION take on a shape that results from the net effect of
● Ability to bend around obstacles the two individual waves upon the particles of the
medium.

SOUND INTENSITY
CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
● The SI unit of sound intensity is watt per square
● two upward displaced pulses having the same
meter (𝑊/𝑚2 ).
shape meet up with one another while traveling in

6
 opposite directions along a medium, the medium ANTI-NODES AND NODES
will take on the shape of an upward displaced
pulse with twice the amplitude of the two
interfering pulses

ANTI-NODES
● locations along the medium where constructive
interference continually occurs
● Points that are vibrating loudly
DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
● if an upward displaced pulse and a downward NODES
displaced pulse having the same shape meet up ● locations along the medium where destructive
with one another while traveling in opposite interference continually occurs
directions along a medium, the two pulses will ● Points of no displacement or vibration
cancel each other's effect upon the displacement
of the medium and the medium will assume the BEATS
equilibrium position.
● the periodic and repeating fluctuations heard in
the intensity of a sound when two sound waves
of very similar frequencies interfere with one
another.
● When constructive interference occurs between
two crests or two troughs, a loud sound is heard.
This corresponds to a peak on the beat pattern
(drawn in green).

SOUND
● When destructive interference between a crest
● a pressure wave that consists of compressions
and a trough occurs, no sound is heard; this
and rarefactions.
corresponds to a point of no displacement on the
beat pattern
● The quality of music is enhanced when multiple
sound waves interfere to produce a pleasant
result.

BEAT FREQUENCY
COMPRESSIONS
● frequency at which these intensity fluctuation
● passes through a section of a medium, it tends to
occurs; it is the difference in frequencies of two
pull particles together into a small region of
sound waves.
space, thus creating a high-pressure region.

RAREFACTIONS STANDING WAVES AND DOPPLER EFFECT

● passes through a section of a medium, it tends to

push particles apart, thus creating a low pressure
region.

7
 DOPPLER EFFECT ● The Doppler effect is a shift in the apparent or
observed frequency and not a shift in the actual
frequency at which the source vibrates

TRAVELING WAVES VS STANDING WAVES

TRAVELING WAVES
● observed when a wave is not confined to a given
space along the medium. The most commonly
observed traveling wave is an ocean wave

STANDING WAVES
● observed wave patterns characterized by points
● A phenomenon observed whenever the sources that appear to be standing still.
of wave is moving with respect to an observer
● can be described as the effect produced by a FLUID MECHANICS
moving source of waves in which there is an
apparent upward shift in frequency for the
observer and the source are approaching and an APPLICATIONS
apparent downward shift in frequency when the ● Fluid mechanics has a wide range of applications
observer and the source is receding. in mechanical and chemical engineering, in
● can be observed to occur with all types of waves biological systems, and in astrophysics
- most notably water waves, sound waves, and
light waves. CATEGORIES OF FLUID MECHANICS

DISTANCE AND NUMBER OF WAVES

FLUID STATICS
● If the distance is large, then the waves can be
spread apart; but if the distance is small, the ● The study of fluids at rest
waves must be compressed into the smaller
distance. FLUID KINEMATICS
● The study of fluids in motion, where pressure
PERCEIVED SOUND WAVES AND PITCH forces are not considered.

FLUID DYNAMICS
● The study of fluids in motion, where pressure
forces are also considered

HYDRODYNAMICS

● If the source is moving away from the observer, ● The study of the motion of fluids that are
the observer perceives sound waves reaching practically incompressible. (Fluids at low speed)
him or her at a less frequent rate (low pitch)
● It is important to note that the effect does not HYDRAULICS
result because of an actual change in the ● Subcategory of Hydrodynamics, which deals with
frequency of the source liquid flows in pipes and open channels

8
GAS DYNAMICS PRESSURE
● Deals with the flow of fluids that undergo ● measure of how much force is concentrated by
significant density changes, such as the flow of the surface area it acts through.
gases through nozzles at high speed ● Pressure is a scalar quantity.
● The SI Unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa), named
AERODYNAMICS after the French scientist Blaise Pascal.
● Deals with the flow of gases over bodies such as ● Atmosphere (atm) is a commonly used unit of
aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high or low pressure. Defined as the average air pressure at
speeds. sea level.

FLUID
● A substance in the liquid or gas phase.
● Units of Pressure Equivalence:
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LIQUID AND GAS

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

PROPERTIES OF FLUID

DENSITY
● the ratio of the mass of a fluid to its volume.

SPECIFIC WEIGHT
● the ratio of the mass of a fluid to its volume.

SPECIFIC VOLUME
● the volume of a fluid occupied by a unit mass

SPECIFIC GRAVITY
● the ratio of the density of a fluid to the density of PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE
a standard fluid. ● “Any change in pressure in an enclosed fluid at
rest is transmitted completely to all parts of the
fluid.”

9
 TYPES OF PRESSURE

FORMULAS
● General Formula

● Derivations

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

APPLICATIONS
● Hydraulic Press
● Dental Chairs
● Hydraulic Brakes
● Automotive

ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
● States that the magnitude of buoyant force on a
submerged object is equal to the weight of the
fluid that is displaced by the object.

FLOATING VS SINKING

FLOATING
● If the density of the object is less than the density
of the fluid, the object will float.

10
SINKING
● If the density of the object is greater than the
density of the fluid, the object will sink.

BUOYANCY
● The force exerted by the liquid below the object is
greater than the force exerted by the liquid above
it; as a result, the liquid exerts a net upward force
on the submerged or floating object.
● Its magnitude is equal to the weight of the
displaced water.

GENERAL FORMULA

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

APPLICATIONS

HYDROMETER
● an instrument used for measuring the relative
density of liquids. Hydrometer consists of lead

11
 shots which makes them float vertically on the
liquid. The lower the hydrometer sinks, the lesser
the density of the liquid.

SUBMARINE
● reason why submarines are always underwater is ● In S.I. unit, volume flow rate has units of meters
that they have a component called ballast tank cubed per second
which allows the water to enter making the
submarine be in its position underwater as the OTHER FORMULA
weight of the submarine is greater than the ● The volume of a portion of the fluid in a pipe can
buoyant force be written as V=Ad, where A is the cross
sectional area of the fluid and d is the width of
HOT-AIR BALLOON that portion of fluid
● reason why hot-air balloons rise and float in ● We can substitute this formula for volume V into
mid-air is because the buoyant force of the the volume flow rate to get the following
hot-air balloon is less than the surrounding air.
When the buoyant force of the hot-air balloon is
more, it starts to descend. This is done by
varying the quantity of hot air in the balloon.

BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE CONTINUITY PRINCIPLE

● Liquids must maintain their volume as they flow
INCOMPRESSIBILITY OF FLUIDS in a pipe since they are nearly incompressible.
● Because liquids are incompressible, any portion - This means that the volume of liquid that
of liquid flowing through a pipe could change flows into a pipe in a given amount of time
shape, but it must maintain the same volume. must equal the volume of liquid that flows out
This is true even if the pipe changes diameter. of a pipe in the same amount of time.
● The volume flow rate for an incompressible fluid
at any point along a pipe is the same as the
volume flow rate at any other point along a pipe.
● This can be represented mathematically with the
formula Q=constant

VOLUME FLOW RATE

● Because liquids are incompressible, any portion
of liquid flowing through a pipe could change
shape, but it must maintain the same volume. SAMPLE PROBLEMS
This is true even if the pipe changes diameter.

● Since volume flow rate measures the amount of

volume that passes through an area per time, the
equation for the volume flow rate looks like this:

12
 FORMULA

● DERIVATION

- 1st formula is used when there is no change

in height or elevation of the fluid
- 2nd formula is used when there is a change
in height or elevation of the fluid

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
● States that an increase in the speed of a fluid
occurs simultaneously with a decrease in
pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential
energy.
● The principle is named after Daniel Bernoulli, a
Swiss mathematician, who published it in 1738 in
his book Hydrodynamics.

13
APPLICATION
● In real world we can give numerous examples of
Bernoulli’s principle being applied: •
- When a truck moves very fast, it created a
low pressure area, so dusts are being pulled
along in the low pressure area.
- If we stand very close to railway track in the
platform, when a fast train passes us, we get
pulled towards the track because of the low
pressure area generated by the sheer speed
of the train.
- Flights makers also use Bernoulli’s Principle
very well to adjust the pressure level in the
wings and fuselage to make the flight
balance in the air. Without proper use of
Bernoulli’s principle the flight body will break
in higher speed.

14