CP8749

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Contents

Worksheet 1 - Inductors 3

Worksheet 2 - Capacitors 5

Worksheet 3 - Inductor and Resistor in Series 7

Worksheet 4 - Capacitor and Resistor in Series 9

Worksheet 5 - Series LCR circuit 11

Worksheet 6 - Inductor and Resistor in Parallel 13

Worksheet 7 - Capacitor and Resistor in Parallel 15

Worksheet 8 - Parallel LCR circuit 17

Worksheet 9 - Q Factor 19

Instructors’ Guide 22

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 Worksheet
1
Resistors oppose electric currents. Inductors oppose changes to
electric currents, but the mechanism is different.
w

An electric current flowing in the inductor, sets up a magnetic field.

Increasing the current means increasing the magnetic field, and that
takes energy from the current, opposing the increase. Reducing the
current means reducing the magnetic field, and that releases energy which tries to maintain
the current.

Inductors behave rather like flywheels on a rotating shaft. Their angular momentum tries to
keep the shaft rotating at the same speed. When the shaft starts to slow down, the stored
energy in the flywheel tries to keep it going. When the shaft tries to speed up, the flywheel
requires energy to speed it up, and so the flywheel seems to resist the change.

Over to you:
Connect a 47mH inductor in series with the AC power
supply, as shown in the circuit diagram.
w1b
Use enough connecting links so that the current can be
measured at point A.
The photograph shows one way to build the circuit.
Set the AC power supply to output a frequency of
50Hz.
Remove the connecting link at A, and connect a
multimeter, set to read up to 20mA AC, in its place.
Record the current flowing at point A in the table.
Remove the multimeter and replace link A.
Set up the multimeter to read AC voltages of up to 20V
and connect it in parallel with the inductor. w1c
Record the voltage in the table.
Now change the power supply frequency to 100Hz and Frequency Current I Voltage V
repeat the measurements. Record them in the table. 50Hz

Do the same for frequencies of 500Hz and 1kHz

(1,000Hz). Again, record these measurements in the 100Hz
table.
The table allows you to take two sets of measurements 500Hz
at each frequency to improve the accuracy of you
results.
1kHz

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 Worksheet
1
So what?
• Resistors behave in a straightforward way, spelled out by Ohm’s Law. If you double the
current through the resistor, you double the voltage dropped across it, and so on.
The ratio of voltage to current is called resistance.
• Inductors are more complicated. If you double the rate of change of current through the
inductor, you double the voltage dropped across it, and so on. The ratio of voltage to rate
of change of current is called inductance L.
• The higher the frequency of the AC, the faster the current changes, and so the greater the
voltage drop across the inductor. In other words, the voltage dropped depends on the
frequency of the AC supply. This is not the case with pure resistors, where the frequency
has no effect.
• We describe this behaviour in terms of the (inductive) reactance, XL, defined, in the
same way as resistance, as XL = V / I. As a result, the units of reactance are ohms.
• The inductive reactance measures the opposition of the inductor to changing current. The
higher the frequency ,f, the greater the change in current. In fact, the formula for inductive
reactance is: XL = 2  f L
• Using your measurements, calculate the XL, from the formula:
XL = V / I
and compare that with the value calculated using
XL = 2  f L where L = 47mH
• Carry out those calculations and fill in the following table with your results:

Frequency Inductive reactance XL = V / I Inductive reactance XL = 2  f L

50Hz
100Hz
500Hz
1kHz

For your records:

The opposition of an inductor to changing currents is called inductive reactance, X L, given
by the formula: XL = 2  f L where f is the frequency of the AC signal, and L is the induct-
ance of the inductor.
It can also be obtained from the formula XL = V / I, where V and I are rms voltage
and current respectively.
Inductance is measured in a unit called the henry, (H) and reactance in ohms.
Complete the following:
When the AC frequency is doubled, the inductive reactance is …………… .

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 Worksheet
2
An electric current sets up a magnetic field inside an inductor. This then
oppose changes to electric currents.

An electric current sets up an electric field across the plates of a capacitor.

w

This opposes changes to the voltage applied to the capacitor. Before the
voltage can increase, electrons must flow onto the plates of the capacitor, increasing the
electric field. This requires energy. When the voltage tries to decrease, electrons flow off the
plates, reducing the electric field. These electrons try to maintain the voltage across the
capacitor.

Capacitors behave rather like buckets in a water circuit. They must fill up before any water
flows anywhere else in the circuit. When the flow of water starts to fall, excess water flows
from the bucket, trying to maintain the flow.

Over to you:
Connect a 1F capacitor in series with the AC power
supply, as shown in the circuit diagram.
w2b
Use enough connecting links so that the current can
be measured at point A.
Set the AC power supply to output a frequency of
50Hz.
Remove the connecting link at A, and connect a mul-
timeter, set to read up to 20mA AC, in its place. Rec-
ord the current flowing at point A in the table.
Remove the multimeter and replace link A.
Set up the multimeter to read AC voltages of up to w2c

20V and connect it in parallel with the capacitor.

Frequency Current I Voltage V
Record the voltage in the table.
50Hz
Now change the power supply frequency to 100Hz
and repeat the measurements. Record them in the
table. 100Hz
Do the same for frequencies of 500Hz and 1kHz
(1,000Hz). Again, record these measurements in the 500Hz
table.
As before, the table allows you to take two sets of 1kHz
measurements at each frequency to improve the
accuracy of you results.

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 Worksheet
2
So what?
• With resistors, when you double the current through the resistor, you double the voltage
dropped across it, and so on. With inductors, when you double the rate of change of
current through the inductor, you double the voltage dropped across it, and so on.
• Capacitors oppose a changing voltage. The faster the rate of change of voltage, the
greater the current that must flow to charge or discharge the capacitor. The higher the fre-
quency of the AC, the faster the voltage changes, and so the greater the current flowing in
the circuit. In other words, the current depends on the frequency of the AC supply.
• We describe this behaviour in terms of the capacitive reactance, XC, defined, in the
same way as resistance, as XC = V / I. As before, the units of reactance are ohms.
• The capacitive reactance measures the opposition of the capacitor to changing current.
The higher the frequency ,f, the greater the change in voltage, and the greater the current
flow. The formula for capacitive reactance is: XC = 1/(2  f C)
• Capacitors are very much a mirror image of inductors. As the frequency of the AC supply
increases, an inductor offers more opposition, (i.e. the inductive reactance increases, and
the current decreases) whereas a capacitor offers less opposition, (i.e. the capacitive re-
actance decreases, and the current increases).
• Using your measurements, calculate the XC, using both :
XC = V / I and XC = 1 / (2  f C) where C = 1F
• Carry out those calculations and fill in the following table with your results:

Frequency Capacitive reactance XC = V / I Capacitive reactance XC = 1 / (2  f C)

50Hz
100Hz
500Hz
1kHz

For your records:

The opposition of a capacitor to changing voltage is called capacitive reactance, X C, giv-
en by the formula: XC = 1 / (2  f C) where f is the frequency of the AC signal, and C is
the capacitance of the capacitor.
It can also be obtained from the formula XC = V / I, where V and I are rms voltage
and current respectively.
Capacitance is measured in farads (F), though, in practice, this unit is too large.
Most capacitors have values given in microfarads (F).
Complete the following:
When the AC frequency is doubled, the capacitive reactance is …………… .

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 Worksheet 3
Inductor and Resistor in

When an inductor and a resistor are connected in series, the pair act as a
voltage divider, but with an important difference - the way they share the AC
voltage changes with the frequency of the AC supply.

It is known as a series L-R circuit. As it is a series circuit, the same current flows
everywhere.
w

The opposition to the current comes in two forms, the resistance of the resistor,
which is independent of frequency, and the reactance of the inductor, which
increases as the frequency increases. Together, these combine to make what
is known as the impedance of the circuit.

Over to you:
Connect a 270 resistor, and a 47mH inductor in series
with the AC supply, as shown in the circuit diagram.
Use enough connecting links so that the current can be
measured at point A.
Set the AC power supply to output a frequency of 100Hz.
w3b
Remove the connecting link at A, and connect a multimeter, set to read up to 20mA
AC, in its place. Record the current flowing at point A in the table.
Remove the multimeter and replace link A.

Set up the multimeter to read AC voltages of up to 20V. Connect it to measure the AC sup-
ply voltage, VS, applied across the two components, and record it in the table.

Measure the voltage VL, across the inductor, and then the voltage VR, across the resistor.
Record these voltages in the table.
Next, set the AC power supply to a frequency of 1kHz.

Repeat the measurements of current and the voltages across the two components, and
record them in the table.

Measurement AC frequency = 100Hz AC frequency = 1kHz

Current at point A in mA
Supply voltage VS

Voltage VR across 270 resistor

Voltage VL across 47mH inductor

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 Worksheet 3
Inductor and Resistor in

So what?
• You took measurements of current and voltage around the series L-R circuit. We will now calculate
the same quantities. Then you can compare the two.
• There are two effects limiting the current - the resistance (270) of the resistor, and the reactance XL
of the inductor.
At the first frequency, (100Hz): XL = 2  f L
-3
= 2  (100) x (47 x 10 )
= 29.5
• We cannot just add together resistance and reactance, because of the phase shift involved. The
voltage across the resistor is in phase with the current through it. The voltage across the inductor is
0
90 ahead of the current . We combine them using the formula for impedance, Z, which takes this
2 2 ½
phase shift into account: Z = (R + (XL - XC) )
In this case, there is no capacitive reactance, and so:
2 2 ½
Z = (R + XL )
2 2 ½
= ((270) + (29.5) )
= 271.61
• We can use this value of impedance to calculate the current, using the formula:
I = VS / Z where VS = AC supply voltage
Use your value of VS here: I = ............................. mA
Using this value of I, the voltage across the resistor, VR, is: (VR = I x R)
= ............................. V
and the voltage across the inductor, VL, is: (V L = I x XL)
= ............................. V
• Check these results against your measured values.
• At 1kHz, notice how the share of the supply voltage changes. The higher frequency increases the
reactance of the inductor. In fact, as the new frequency is 10 times bigger than the first, the reactance
is 10 times bigger (i.e. 295.3 Thus, the inductor takes a much bigger share of the supply voltage.
• You need to measure the AC supply voltage across the resistor and inductor again. The output
impedance of the AC power supply itself will have an effect. Now that the impedance of the L-R circuit
has increased, the output voltage of the AC supply may also have increased.
• Repeat the calculations at the new frequency, and check your results against the measured values.

For your records:

At a frequency f, the reactance of an inductor is: XL = 2  f L
2 2 ½
and the impedance of a L-R circuit is: Z = (R + XL )
The (rms) current is given by: I = VS / Z where VS = (rms) AC supply voltage.
The resulting voltage across the resistor is VR = I x R and across the inductor VL = I x XL
When the rms value of supply voltage is used, all other currents and voltages will be rms.
When the peak value is used, all other currents and voltages will be peak values too.

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 Worksheet 4
Capacitor and Resistor in

When an inductor and a resistor are connected in series, the pair act as a
voltage divider, but the way they share the AC voltage depends on the
frequency of the AC supply.

The same is true when a capacitor and resistor are connected in series, but
with an important difference - the reactance of the capacitor decreases as the
frequency increases. For the inductor, reactance increases as the frequency
w

increases.

This type of circuit is known as a series C-R circuit. As before, the same current
flows in all parts of the circuit.

Over to you:
Connect a 270 resistor, and a 1F capacitor in series
with the AC supply, as shown in the circuit diagram.
Use enough connecting links so that the current can be
measured at point A.
Set the AC power supply to output a frequency of 100Hz.
w4b

Remove the connecting link at A, and connect a multimeter, set to read up to 20mA AC, in
its place. Record the current flowing at point A in the table.
Remove the multimeter and replace link A.

Set up the multimeter to read AC voltages of up to 20V. Connect it to measure the AC

supply voltage, VS, applied across the two components, and record it in the table.

Measure the voltage VC, across the capacitor, and then the voltage VR, across the resistor.
Record these voltages in the table.
Next, set the AC power supply to a frequency of 1kHz.

Repeat the measurements of current and the voltages across the two components, and
record them in the table.

Measurement AC frequency = 100Hz AC frequency = 1kHz

Current at point A in mA

Voltage VR across 270 resistor

Voltage VC across 1F capacitor

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 Worksheet 4
Capacitor and Resistor in

So what?
• The treatment that follows mirrors that used for the previous worksheet. We calculate the quantities
that you measured, so that you can then compare the two.
• The two effects limiting the current are - the resistance (270) of the resistor, and the reactance XC of
the capacitor.
At the first frequency, (100Hz): XC = 1 / (2  f C)
-6
= 1 / (2  (100) x (1 x 10 )
= 1591.5
• The voltage across the resistor is in phase with the current through it. The voltage across the capaci-
0
tor is 90 behind the current . The formula for impedance, Z, takes this phase shift into account:
2 2 ½
Z = (R + (XL - XC) )
In this case, there is no inductive reactance, and so:
2 2 ½
Z = (R + XC )
2 2 ½
= ((270) + (1591.5) )
= 1614.3
• Use this value of impedance to calculate the current, using the formula:
I = VS / Z where VS = AC supply voltage
(using your value of VS here): I = ............................. mA
Hence the voltage across the resistor, VR : (VR = I x R)
= ............................. V
and the voltage across the capacitor, VC: (V C = I x XC)
= ............................. V
• Check these results against your measured values.

• At 1kHz, notice how the share of the supply voltage changes this time. The higher frequency reduces
the reactance of the capacitor. As the new frequency is 10 times higher than the first, the reactance is
10 times smaller (i.e. 159.2 The capacitor takes a much lower share of the supply voltage at high
frequencies.
• Once again, be warned - repeat the measurement of the AC supply voltage across the resistor and
capacitor! The impedance of the C-R circuit has increased. The output voltage of the AC supply may
also have increased.
• Repeat the calculations at the new frequency, and check your results against the measured values.

For your records:

At a frequency f, the reactance of a capacitor is: XC = 1 / (2  f C)
2 2 ½
and the impedance of a C-R circuit is: Z = (R + XC )
The (rms) current is given by: I = VS / Z where VS = (rms) AC supply voltage.
The resulting voltage across the resistor is VR = I x R and across the capacitor VC = I x XC

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 Worksheet
5

At this point, circuits become very interesting!

Inductors have a reactance that increases with frequency.

Capacitors have a reactance that decreases with frequency,
Resistors don’t care about frequency.
ist2_1577451-

A series LCR circuit has all three elements, though the

resistance may be that of the wire used in the inductor,
rather than of a discrete resistor.
One frequency, known as the resonant frequency, causes the circuit to behave in an
extraordinary way!

Over to you:
Connect a 47mH inductor and a 1F capacitor in series, as
shown in the circuit diagram.
Set the AC power supply to output a frequency of 100Hz.
Remove the connecting link at A, and connect a multimeter,
set to read up to 20mA AC, in its place. Record the current
flowing at point A in the table. Remove the multimeter and
replace the link. w5b

Set up the multimeter to read AC voltages of up to Frequency AC supply Current I at

in Hz voltage VS in V A in mA
20V. Connect it to measure the AC supply voltage,
VS, applied across the two components, and record 100

it in the table. 200

300
Change the frequency to 200Hz, and repeat the
400
measurements. Again record them in the table.
500
Do the same for the other frequencies listed, and
600
complete the table.
700
800
900
1000

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 Worksheet
5
So what?

• Your results table may not make it obvious what is happening, partly because the
output impedance of the AC power supply will probably have an effect on output
voltage.It will be clearer when we look at the impedance of the circuit.
• Complete the table, by calculating Frequency AC supply Current I at Impedance Z
in Hz voltage VS in V A in mA in k
the impedance, Z, at different
frequencies, using the formula: 100
Z = VS / I 200

• At low frequencies, the capacitor has 300

a high reactance, and the inductor a 400
low reactance. As the frequency 500
rises, the capacitor’s reactance falls, 600
but the inductor’s reactance 700
increases. There is one value of 800
frequency, called the resonant
900
frequency, where the combined
1000
effect of the two is a minimum.
At this frequency, the impedance of the circuit
is a minimum. 1.8

1.6
• Plot a graph of impedance against frequency, 1.4
Impedance in

and use it to estimate the resonant 1.2

1
frequency. 0.8

A typical frequency response curve is shown 0.6

opposite. 0.4

0.2

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Frequency in Hz x
100

For your records:

For a series LCR circuit, the impedance is a minimum at the resonant frequency, f R.
This can be calculated from the formula fR = 1 / 2  √ (L x C)

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Worksheet 6
Inductor and Resistor in

When an inductor and a resistor are connected in parallel, the pair act as a current
divider, which shares the AC current in a way that changes with the frequency of
the AC supply.

Since the inductor and resistor are connected in parallel, they have the same
voltage across them, but take a current which depends on resistance / reactance.

Over to you:
Connect a 270 resistor and a 47mH inductor in
parallel with the AC supply, as shown.
Use enough connecting links so that the current
can be measured at points A, B and C.
w6a
Set the AC power supply to output a frequency of
100Hz.
Remove the connecting link at A, and connect a multimeter, set to read up to 20mA
AC, in its place. Record the current flowing at point A in the table. Remove the multi-
meter and replace link A.
Do the same for the currents flowing at points B and C.
Set up the multimeter to read AC voltages of up to 20V. Connect it to measure the AC
supply voltage, VS, applied across the two components, and record it in the table.
Next, set the AC power supply to a frequency of 1kHz.
Repeat the measurements of currents and the voltage across the two components,
and record them in the table.
Measurement AC frequency = 100Hz AC frequency = 1kHz
Current at point A in mA
Current at point B in mA
Current at point C in mA
Supply voltage VS

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 Worksheet 6
Inductor and Resistor in

So what?

• As before, we are going to calculate the quantities you measured, so that you can
compare the two. Use your value of VS to complete the calculations below.

At a frequency of 100Hz
• Resistance of resistor R1 = 270
and so the current through it, (at point C,) IC= VS / R = .............. / 270 = .............. A
• Reactance XL of inductor L1 is given by:
XL = 2  f
L
-3
= 2  (100) x (47 x 10 )
= 29.5
and so the current through it, (at point B,) IB= VS / XL = ............ / 29.5 = ............ A
• The current at A, IA, is found by combining these currents, but not by simply add-
ing them.
These currents are not in phase! The current, IC, through the resistor is in phase
0
with VS. The current, IB, through the inductor lags behind VS by 90 .
2 2
The currents can be combined using the formula: I A = IB 2+ IC
2
or: IA = √ (I B + IC 2
• Use your results to the calculations above to calculate a value for IA.
• Check these results against your measured values.

At a frequency of 1kHz
• Notice how the share of the current changes. The reactance of the inductor is 10
times bigger (i.e. 295.3.) Thus, the inductor takes offers a much more difficult
route for the current and so passes a much smaller current.
• You need to measure the AC supply voltage across the resistor and inductor
again. The output impedance of the AC power supply itself will have an effect.
• Repeat the calculations at the new frequency, and check your results against the
measured values.

For your records:

For a parallel combination of a resistor and inductor,
the total current IS is given by:
2
I S = I L + IR
2 2

where IL = current through inductor and IR = current through resistor.

Using the AC version of Ohm’s Law:
IL = VS / XL and IR = VS / R

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Worksheet 7
Capacitor and Resistor in

When a capacitor and a resistor are connected in parallel, they act as a current
divider, sharing the AC current in a way that changes with the frequency of the AC
supply.

However, in this case, when the supply frequency increases, the reactance of the
capacitor decreases, making it an easier route for the current to flow though.

Over to you:
Connect a 270 resistor and a 1F capacitor in
parallel with the AC supply, as shown.
Use enough connecting links so that the current can
be measured at points A, B and C.
Set the AC power supply to output a frequency of w7a

100Hz.
Remove the connecting link at A, and connect a multimeter, set to read up to 20mA AC, in
its place. Record the current flowing at point A in the table. Remove the multimeter and
replace link A.
Do the same for the currents flowing at points B and C.
Set up the multimeter to read AC voltages of up to 20V. Connect it to measure the AC
supply voltage, VS, applied across the two components, and record it in the table.
Next, set the AC power supply to a frequency of 1kHz.
Repeat the measurements of currents and the voltage across the two components, and
record them in the table.

Measurement AC frequency = 100Hz AC frequency = 1kHz

Current at point A in mA
Current at point B in mA
Current at point C in mA
Supply voltage VS

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 Worksheet 7
Capacitor and Resistor in

So what?

• As before, we are going to calculate the quantities you measured, so that you can
compare the two. Use your value of VS to complete the calculations below.

At a frequency of 100Hz
• Resistance of resistor R1 = 270
and so the current through it, (at point C,) IC= VS / R = .............. / 270 = .............. A
• Reactance XC of capacitor C1 is given by:
XC = 1 / 2  f C
-6
= 2  (100) x (1 x 10 )
= 1591.5
and so the current through it, (at point B,) IB= VS / XC = .......... / 1591.5 = ............ A
• Again, these currents are not in phase. The current, IC, through the resistor is in
0
phase with VS. The current, IB, through the capacitor leads VS by 90 .
The current at A, IA, is found by combining these currents, using the formula:
2 2
I A = IB + IC
2

or: IA = √ (IB2 + IC 2)
• Use your results to the calculations above to calculate a value for IA.
• Check these results against your measured values.

At a frequency of 1kHz
• Once again. notice how the share of the current changes. The reactance of the
capacitor is 10 times smaller (i.e. 159.2.) Thus, the capacitor offers a much
easier path for the current and so passes a much bigger current.
• As usual, measure the AC supply voltage across the resistor and inductor again.
The output impedance of the AC power supply itself will have an effect.
• Repeat the calculations at the new frequency, and check your results against the
measured values.

For your records:

For a parallel combination of a resistor and capacitor,
the total current IS is given by:
2 2
I = IC + IR
2
S
where IC = current through capacitor and IR = current through resistor.
Using the AC version of Ohm’s Law:
IC = VS / XC and IR = VS / R

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 Worksheet
8

We return to the question of resonance again. In worksheet

5, you investigated a series circuit, which favoured one
particular frequency, known as the resonant frequency,
more than any other. Now you take a look at the behaviour
of a parallel circuit.
ist2_1556878-

Remember - inductors have a reactance that increases with

frequency, capacitors have a reactance that decreases with
frequency and resistors don’t care about frequency.

Our parallel circuit has an inductor connected in parallel with a capacitor. In reality, the
resistance of the wire used to make the inductor, appears in series with the inductor. To
begin with, we assume that this is so small that we can ignore it. The procedure is the same
as that used for the series circuit - measure current and voltage over a range offrequencies,
and use these measurements to calculate the impedance of the circuit at that frequency.

Over to you:
Connect a 47mH inductor and a 1F capacitor in
parallel, as shown in the circuit diagram.
Set the AC power supply to output a frequency
of 100Hz.
w8b
Remove the connecting link at A, and connect a multimeter, set to read up to 20mA
AC, in its place. Record the current flowing at point A in the table. Remove the multimeter
and
replace the link. Frequency AC supply Current I at
in Hz voltage VS in V A in mA
Set up the multimeter to read AC voltages of up to
100
20V. Connect it to measure the AC supply voltage,
VS, applied across the two components, and record 200

it in the table. 300

400
Change the frequency to 200Hz, and repeat the
500
measurements. Again record them in the table.
600
Do the same for the other frequencies listed, and
700
complete the table.
800
900
1000

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 Worksheet
8
So what?

• As before, the results will look clearer when we calculate the impedance of the circuit at
the different frequencies.
Frequency AC supply Current I at Impedance Z
in Hz voltage VS in V A in mA in k
• Complete the table, by calculating
the impedance, Z, at each frequency, 100
using the formula: 200
Z = VS / I 300
• At low frequencies, the capacitor has 400
a high reactance, and the inductor a 500
low reactance, and so more current 600
flows through the inductor than 700
through the capacitor. 800
As the frequency rises, the capacitor’s 900
reactance falls, but the inductor’s 1000
reactance increases. Gradually, the
capacitor offers an easier path for the current than does the inductor. The resonant
frequency is where the combined
effect of the two, the circuit impedance, 1

is a maximum. 0.9
0.8
• Plot a graph of impedance against 0.7
Impedance in

frequency, and use it to estimate the 0.6

resonant frequency. A typical 0.5

0.4
frequency response curve is shown
0.3
opposite. 0.2
0.1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10
Frequency in Hz x 100

For your records:

For a parallel LCR circuit, the impedance is a maximum at the resonant
frequency, fR.
At frequencies below fR, the inductor offers an easier route for the current. At
frequencies above fR, the capacitor offers an easier route.

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 Worksheet 9
Q Factor and

What connects trombones, bridges and wine glasses with LCR

circuits? They all have a resonant frequency.
In trombones, air vibrates at the resonant frequency, producing a
musical note - usually desirable! Resonance can have undesirable
w9a
effects too. Everyone has heard the story of the opera singer singing
so loud that she shatters a wine glass. Bridges can also resonate. In
November 1940, the bridge over Tacoma Narrows, near Seattle, USA,
ist2_7725727-sound-noise-concept-

collapsed when the aerodynamic effects of the wind blowing over it

made it vibrate at its resonant frequency. The replacement was made
more rigid - given more resistance to vibration!
Well - LCR circuits behave in the same way when you add some resistance! It suppresses the
vibration, making it less likely to build up.
Over to you:
Connect a 47mH inductor and a 1F capacitor in series with the
AC supply. This is the circuit you used in worksheet 5, though the
procedure will be slightly different!
Set the AC supply to output a frequency of 100Hz.
Connect a multimeter to measure the AC voltage, VS, and
record it in the table. Then measure, and record, the voltage, VC
across the capacitor. w9b

Change the frequency to 200Hz, repeat the measurements and record them.
Do the same for the other frequencies listed, and complete the table.
Next, connect a 10 resistor in series with the inductor and capacitor, and repeat the
measurements. Finally, swap the 10 resistor for a 47 resistor and repeat the
measurements.
No series resistor 10 series resistor 47 series resistor
Frequency in Hz
VS in V VC in V VS in V VC in V VS in V VC in V
100

200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000

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 Worksheet 9
Q Factor and

So what?

• The ‘Q’ in Q factor stands for ‘Quality’. There are several ways to view the Q factor of a reso-
nant circuit.
• The higher the quality, the longer it takes for the oscillations to die out.
• The Q factor is a measure of the sharpness of the peak of the frequency response curve.
• It is the ratio of energy stored, to the energy lost per cycle of the AC.
• The higher the quality, the greater the voltage amplification of a resonant circuit.
• We will use this final version.
At resonance, the voltage across the inductor, VL, is equal to Frequency 0 10 47
the voltage across the capacitor, VC. in Hz
VC / VS VC / VS VC / VS
The voltage amplification refers to the ratio of the voltage 100
across the capacitor (or inductor, as it is equal,) to the supply 200
voltage, VS at resonance.
300
In other words: Q factor = VC / VS 400
500
• Complete the table by calculating the ratio (VC / VS) for each
600
frequency and for each value of series resistor used. The
first row shows the value of the series resistor added to the 700
resistance of the inductor, i.e. the resistance of the long 800
length of wire used to wind the coil inside it. 900
1000
• Plot three graphs to show the frequency responses of your
three circuits,
(with no added resistance, with 10 added 6

in series and with 47 added in series.) 5

The results should resemble those shown
4
opposite.
3
• Use your 0 graph to estimate the Q factor
Q

of the L-C circuit. 2

• Notice the effect on the shape of the 1
resonance curve, and on its Q factor of
0
adding series resistance to the circuit. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10
Frequency in Hz x 100

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 Worksheet 9
Q Factor and

So what?

• Another way to represent the sharpness of the frequency response peak is to calculate its
bandwidth.
• The bandwidth of a signal is a measure of the range of
frequencies present in it. Obviously, there must be a
cut-off where we say that any weaker frequency com-
ponents don’t really count. This cut-off is usually taken
to be the half-power points. On the diagram
opposite these occur at the frequencies fH and fL.
The bandwidth is calculated as fH - fL.

• The formula for electrical power, P, is:

P=IxV
but this can be written as: w9c

2
P=V /R
In other words, the power dissipated depends on (voltage squared). To find the half-power
points on a voltage / frequency graph, we have to look for the points where the voltage has
2
dropped to 0.7 of its peak value (because 0.7 is roughly equal to 0.5, i.e. half-power)

• Estimate the bandwidth of the resonant frequency curve for each of your three graphs.

For your records:

At resonance, the voltage across the inductor, VL, is equal to the voltage across
the capacitor, VC.
The higher the quality factor, the greater the voltage amplification of a resonant
circuit.
Voltage amplification is the ratio of the voltage across the capacitor (or inductor,
as it is equal,) to the supply voltage, VS at resonance.
In other words: Q factor = VC / VS

The bandwidth of a signal is a measure of the range of frequencies present in it.

It is calculated as the range of frequencies between the half-power points, f H and
fL or in other words, bandwidth = fH - fL. On a voltage / frequency graph, it is the
range between the frequencies where the signal voltage has dropped to 0.7
(70%) of its peak value.
The effect of increasing the resistance in the resonant circuit is to reduce the Q
factor, and increase the bandwidth of the resonance peak.

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 Instructor Guide
About this course
Introduction
The course is essentially a practical one. Locktronics equipment makes it simple and quick to
construct and investigate electrical circuits. The end result can look exactly like the circuit diagram, thanks
to the symbols printed on each component carrier.

Aim
The course introduces students to advanced concepts and relationships in electricity. It provides a series of
practical experiments which allow students to unify theoretical work with practical skills in AC circuits.

Prior Knowledge
It is recommended that students have followed the ‘Electricity Matters 1’ and ‘Electricity Matters 2’ courses,
or have equivalent knowledge and experience of building simple circuits, and using multimeters.

Learning Objectives
On successful completion of this course the student will:
• know that the opposition of an inductor to changing currents is called inductive reactance;
• be able to use the formula: XL = 2  f L to calculate inductive reactance;
• be able to use the formula XL = V / I, where V and I are rms voltage and current respectively.
• know that inductance is measured in a unit called the henry, (H) and that reactance is measured in ohms;
• know that the opposition of a capacitor to changing voltage is called capacitive reactance;
• be able to use the formula: XC = 1 / (2  f C) to calculate capacitive reactance;
• be able to use the formula XC = V / I, where V and I are rms voltage and current respectively;
• know that capacitance is measured in farads (F), or microfarads (F);
2 2 ½
• be able to calculate the impedance of a L-R circuit, using the formula: Z = (R + XL ) ;
• be able to calculate the (rms) current using: I = VS / Z where VS = (rms) AC supply voltage;
• be able to calculate the voltage across a resistor using VR = I x R, across an inductor using VL = I x XL and across
a capacitor using VC = I x XC;
2 2 ½
• be able to calculate the impedance of a C-R circuit using the formula: Z = (R + XC )
• know that the impedance is a minimum at the resonant frequency, in a series LCR circuit;
• be able to calculate resonant frequency in a series LCR circuit using the formula fR = 1 / 2  √ (L x C)
• know that inductors usually have some resistance as well, due to the long length of wire used in construction;
• know that the effect of this resistance is to dampen the resonance;
2 2
• be able to calculate the total current IS using the formula: IS = I + IR2 in a parallel L-R circuit;
L
• be able to use the formulae: IL = VS / XL and IR = VS / R in a parallel L-R circuit;
2 2 2
• be able to calculate the total current IS using the formula: IS = IC + IR in a parallel C-R circuit;
• be able to use the formulae: IC = VS / XC and IR = VS / R in a parallel C-R circuit;
• know that impedance is a maximum at the resonant frequency in a parallel LCR circuit;
• be able to relate the quality factor to the voltage amplification in a resonant circuit;
• be able to calculate Q factor using the formula: Q factor = VC / VS;
• know that the bandwidth of a signal is a measure of the range of frequencies present in it.
• be able to calculate the bandwidth of a resonance curve, using the half-power points;
• know the effect of increased resistance on the Q factor, and on the bandwidth in a resonant circuit .

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Instructor Guide

What the student will need: Qty Code Description

1 HP4039 Lid for plastic trays
To complete the Advanced Electrical Principles 2 HP2666 International power supply with adaptors
DC and AC courses, the student will need the 1 HP5540 Deep tray
parts shows in the table. 1 HP7750 Locktronics daughter tray foam insert
1 HP9564 62mm daughter tray
1 LK2871 Locktronics Warranty Document
In addition to this students will need a suitable
1 LK4000 Locktronics User Guide
signal generator like the LK8990.
1 LK4025 Resistor - 10 ohm, 1W 5% (DIN)

1 LK4065 Resistor - 47R. 1/4W 5% (DIN)

1 LK5100 Locktronics current probe
1 LK5202 Resistor - 1K, 1/4W, 5% (DIN)
3 LK5203 Resistor - 10K, 1/4W, 5% (DIN)
1 LK5205 Resistor - 270 ohm 1/4W, 5% (DIN)
1 LK5209 Resistor - 5.6K, 1/4W, 5% (DIN)
12 LK5250 Connecting Link
1 LK6201 Resistor - 330K, 1/4W, 5% (DIN)
2 LK6205 Capacitor, 1 uF, Polyester
1 LK6211 Resistor - 22K, 1/4W, 5% (DIN)
1 LK6213 Resistor - 15K 1/4W, 5% (DIN)
1 LK6214R2 Choke 47mH
1 LK6218 Resistor - 2.2K, 1/4W, 5% (DIN)
1 LK6492 Curriculum pack CD ROM
1 LK6917 Locktronics blister pack lid
1 LK6921 Locktronics blister pack clear tray & insert
2 LK7461 Power supply carrier with voltage source symbol
1 LK8022 General puprpose lead set (LK5603 x 2, LK5604 x 2)
1 LK8900 7 x 5 baseboard with 4mm pillars

Power source:
Although there are two ways to power these circuits, either with C type batteries
on a baseboard containing three battery holders, or using a mains-powered pow-
er supply, at this level the latter is more suitable, and the worksheets are written
using that approach.

The larger baseboard is appropriate for use with this power supply., which can
be adjusted to output voltages of either 3V, 4.5V, 6V, 7.5V, 9V or 12V, with currents typically up to 1A.
The voltage is changed by turning the selector dial just above the
earth pin until the arrow points to the required voltage. The in-
structor may decide to make any adjustment necessary to the
power supply voltage, or may allow students to make those
changes.

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Instructor Guide

Using this course:

It is expected that the series of experiments given in this course is integrated with teaching or small
group tutorials which introduce the theory behind the practical work, and reinforce it with written
examples, assignments and calculations.
The worksheets should be printed / photocopied / laminated, preferably in colour, for the students’
use. Students should be encouraged to make their own notes, and copy the results tables, working
and sections marked ’For your records’ for themselves. They are unlikely to need their own perma-
nent copy of each worksheet.

Each worksheet has:

• an introduction to the topic under investigation;
• step-by-step instructions for the investigation that follows;
• a section headed ‘So What’, which aims to collate and summarise the results, and offer some
extension work. It aims to encourage development of ideas, through collaboration with part-
ners and with the instructor.
• a section headed ‘For your records’, which can be copied and completed in students’ exercise
books.

This format encourages self-study, with students working at a rate that suits their ability. It is for the
instructor to monitor that students’ understanding is keeping pace with their progress through the
worksheets. One way to do this is to ‘sign off’ each worksheet, as a student completes it, and in the
process have a brief chat with the student to assess grasp of the ideas involved in the exercises it
contains.

Time:
It will take students between seven and nine hours to complete the worksheets.
It is expected that a similar length of time will be needed to support the learning that takes place as
a result.

Using multimeters to measure AC quantities:

Instructors should be aware that multimeters have limitations when used to measure AC quantities.
Their accuracy will decrease when used at high frequencies, because of the effect of their input
impedance. The data sheet for the multimeter will give details about this. The frequencies used in
this course are unlikely to cause problems to most multimeters.

Instructors may prefer that students use oscilloscopes to make AC voltage measurements on the
circuits. In this way, the range of frequencies used in the investigations could be extended. This
could be set as a challenge for more able students.

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Instructor Guide - Scheme of work

Worksheet Notes for the Instructor Timing

1 The aim of the investigation is introduce the student to the effects of in- 30 - 45
ductive reactance. mins
As students may be unfamiliar with using the AC power supply, the in-
structor should check that it is set to the correct frequency of 50Hz.
For those returning to electrical studies after a break, it is an opportunity
to revisit the skills involved in using multimeters to measure current and
voltage. In particular, students should be reminded that voltage measure-
ments can be made without interrupting the circuit, as the multimeter is
then connected in parallel with the resistor under investigation. On the
other hand, to measure current at a point in the circuit, the circuit must be
broken at that point and the multimeter inserted there to complete the cir-
cuit.
Instructors need to be aware that the low current ranges on most multime-
ters are protected by internal fuses. If a student is having difficulty in get-
ting readings from a circuit, it may be that this internal fuse has blown. It is
worth having some spare multimeters available, and the means to change
those fuses, to streamline the lesson.
A comparison is made between resistors, which oppose current, and in-
ductors, which oppose changing current. The instructor might wish to
elaborate on this, and expand on what is meant by ‘rate of change of cur-
rent’.
Students often find it confusing that reactance is measured in ohms. The
point should be made that this comes from the definition of inductive reac-
tance and a formula that looks like, but has nothing to do with, Ohm’s law.
The opposition caused by resistors is the resistance. However, the oppo-
sition caused by inductors is not the inductance, but the inductive reac-
tance.
They will need plenty of practice in calculating this from the formula: XL =
2  f L as they confuse the terms f and L, and find it difficult to convert
multipliers such as ’milli’ often used with inductance.

2 This is the introductory worksheet for capacitors, equivalent to Worksheet

30 - 45
1.
mins
It is important that students appreciate that inductors and capacitors are
really mirror-images of each other. The former sets up a magnetic field,
the latter an electric field. The former has a slowly increasing current,
once a voltage is applied to it. The latter has a slowly increasing voltage
across it, as a current flows in the circuit. Inductors oppose a changing
current, capacitors a changing voltage. This opposition increases with fre-
quency in inductors, but decreases with frequency in capacitors.
The treatment given in the worksheet makes no mention of phasor dia-
grams, but the instructor may wish to introduce these to support the stu-
dent’s understanding.
As pointed out above, there is widespread confusion among students over
the difference between reactance and, in this case, capacitance. The op-
position caused by resistors is the resistance. However, the opposition
caused by capacitors is not their capacitance, but their capacitive reac-
tance.
They will need plenty of practice in calculating this from the formula:
XC = 1 / 2  f C as they find it difficult to convert multipliers such as ‘micro’
and ‘nano’.

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Instructor Guide - Scheme of work

Worksheet Notes for the Instructor Timing

3 A series combination of inductor and resistor acts as a frequency- 25 - 40
dependent voltage divider. In effect it separates the range of frequencies mins
into two. Low frequencies set up big voltages across the resistor, high fre-
quencies across the inductor. This kind of circuit is often referred to as a
filter for that reason.
The treatment offered here hints at the issues over phase shift, but does
not go into detail. The instructor must judge whether a particular class
needs, and can cope with, a more detailed account, perhaps including
phasor diagrams.
Similarly, the concept of impedance is introduced without explanation, and
the formula for impedance in a series circuit is thrown in without any sup-
porting theory.
Students then use their measured value of the supply AC voltage to calcu-
late the current flowing, and from that the voltage across the resistor and
across the inductor, so that these can be compared with the measured val-
ues.
They then repeat the whole process for a supply frequency of 10kHz. The
reactance of the inductor is now ten times greater than before, so that it
dominates the voltage divider at this frequency, demonstrating the filter ef-
fect mentioned above.

4 This is a parallel investigation to the one in the previous worksheet but for 25 - 40
capacitor - resistor networks. The same ideas apply. The reactance of the mins
capacitor and the resistance of the resistor cannot be combined in a simple
additive manner because of the phase shifts involved. Again, the instructor
might decide to go into this in more detail with a more able class.
The approach is identical to that in Worksheet 3, except that the second
frequency chosen is ten times smaller, i.e. 100Hz. The students should be
encouraged to notice the similarities and differences between the two situa-
tions. Here, once again, the reactance is ten times bigger at the second
frequency, and so this time the capacitor dominates the voltage divider at
this second frequency. In other words, low frequencies set up large voltag-
es across the capacitor, whereas high frequencies do so across the resis-
tor.

5 Having studied inductors and capacitors separately previously, this work-

sheet now combines them, and introduces the concept of resonance in the
process.
Instructors should mention that resonance is a widespread effect seen in
any oscillating system. In some, such as musical instruments, it is advanta-
geous, and students might be asked to research how the resonant frequen-
cy can be changed in, say, wind and string instruments, so that different
notes are produced. In some systems, particularly in civil and mechanical
engineering, resonance can cause real problems, from annoying rattles
that occur in cars at particular speeds, to vibrations in aircraft wings and
bridges that threaten complete mechanical failure.

continued on next page...

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Instructor Guide - Scheme of work

Worksheet Notes for the Instructor Timing

5 ... continued from previous page 25 - 40
Electrical resonance has a number of applications. The obvious one is the mins
tuned circuit in a radio, where the very weak electrical signals pcked up by
the aerial stimulate the tuned circuit to oscillate at its resonant frequency.
Other uses include an implant which is heated by stimulating it at its resonant
frequency by high frequency radio waves, to kill cancerous cells located
nearby, and the increasingly important techniques of RFID (radio frequency
identification,) where passive (unpowered) devices can pick up enough ener-
gy, because of being stimulated at their resonant frequency, to transmit infor-
mation to a nearby device.
The approach here is to look at what happens to the impedance of the circuit
as the applied frequency is changed. In other words, the circuit offers less
hindrance to some frequencies and more to others. Although there is no add-
ed series resistor, students should be made aware that the windings of the
inductor coil have resistance. The effect of this will be explored in worksheet
9.
At resonance, the voltage across the capacitor is equal and opposite to that
across the inductor, and so the two cancel each other out. The only hin-
drance to the flow of current is then the resistance of the various elements in
the circuit, particularly the inductor. Equally, because the voltages across th
capacitor and inductor cancel each other out, there is no reason why these
cannot be very large voltages. Again, this voltage amplification effect is ex-
plored later.
These large-scale effects occur in other examples of resonance, such as the
much-publicised shattering of a wine glass by the singing voice of an opera
singer.

6 Whereas series combinations of inductors, resistors and capacitors make 30 - 45

frequency-dependent voltage dividers, parallel combinations form frequency- mins
dependent current dividers.
This worksheet introduces the first of these, the parallel L-R circuit.
The treatment deliberately avoids the issue of impedance in parallel circuits,
because the relevant formula is quite complicated. Instead, it looks at the
currents in various parts of the circuit, and how they are related. Ther are
phase shift issues again, and the formula that is dropped in to calculate total
current comes directly from the phasor diagram for this circuit, though this is
not explained. In this case, the voltage across the components is the same.
The current through the resistor is in phase with it, but the current in the in-
0
ductor lags behind by 90 . The instructor must judge how much of this needs
to be explained to the class.
As before, students use their measured value of the supply voltage to calcu-
late the currents flowing through the inductor and resistor, and then combine
these to calculate a value for the total current flowing.
The investigation is repeated for a second, higher, frequency to show that the
distribution of current is frequency dependent.

Copyright 2023 Matrix Technology Solutions Page

Instructor Guide - Scheme of work

Worksheet Notes for the Instructor Timing

7 This is the equivalent investigation for parallel C-R circuits. 30 - 45
The approach is identical, and again the formula for impedance is studious- mins
ly avoided, because of its complexity. Students should know that the formu-
la used for impedance in earlier worksheets applied only to series combina-
tions, but the investigations in this and the previous worksheet avoid the
need to calculate
impedance itself.
The measurements are repeated for a frequency of 10kHz, to show that this
changes the pattern of currents. Now the capacitor has a much lower reac-
tance, and so passes a higher current.
Students should be helped to visualise that here we are using a relatively
pure single frequency, whereas in many systems, the signal is a combina-
tion of many frequencies, and then the way the currents divide differs de-
pending on frequency.

8 Students should compare the behaviour of this circuit, a parallel LCR cir- 30 - 45
cuit, with that of the series LCR circuit studied in Worksheet 5. mins
Students measure the AC supply voltage and the total current leaving the
power supply, and from that calculate the circuit impedance. The emer-
gence of a resonant frequency becomes apparent when the impedance cal-
culations are carried out. This time, though, the circuit impedance is a maxi-
mum at the resonant frequency, not a minimum.
The behaviour of inductive and capacitive reactances above and below the
resonant frequency are described, but this may need reinforcing in class
discussion.

9 Students have now investigated two forms of electrical resonance, one in 30 - 45

series LCR circuits, and one in parallel LCR circuits. mins
The next concept introduced is that of Q factor, essentially how sharp the
resonance curve is. The controlling influence here is the total resistance of
the circuit. The greater it is, the less the circuit notices the resonant fre-
quency. For mechanical systems such as bridges, this is the ideal behav-
iour - despite stimulation at the resonant frequency, the vibrations of the
structure are very small.
There are several ways to calculate the Q factor for a vibrating system. The
one used here essentially looks at the ratio of energy stored to energy lost
per cycle, though this boils down to the ratio of peak voltage across the ca-
pacitor (or inductor, as these are equal at resonance,) to the supply voltage.
The investigation then looks at the effect on the resonance curve of adding
extra series resistors.
Then the concept of bandwidth is introduced. It is defined in terms of the
half-power points on the frequency spectrum for the signal. In reality, this is
not often a useful way to measure bandwidth, as usually voltage, not power
is measured. Therefore, bandwidth is then defined in terms of voltages. To
find the point at which the power has dropped to 0.5, we look for the points
at which the voltage has dropped to 0.7 of its peak, since power depends
2 2
on (voltage) , and (0.7) = 0.5, roughly!

Copyright 2023 Matrix Technology Solutions Page