Chapter 1 - The French Revolution

The French Revolution In 1789,

in the wake of early morning, the city of Paris was in a state of alarm. Rumours
spread that the King would open fire upon the citizens. People started gathering and they
started breaking a number of government buildings in search of arms. The commander of the
Bastille was killed in the armed fight and the prisoners were released. People hated the
Bastille as it stood for the despotic power of the king. People protested against the high price
of bread. A new chain of events began which led to the execution of the King in France.
French Society during the Late Eighteenth Century
Louis XVI, in 1774, ascended the throne of France. Financial France was drained
because of the war. France, Under Louis XVI, helped the thirteen American colonies to gain
their independence from Britain. Taxes were increased to meet regular expenses, such as the
cost of maintaining an army, the court, running government offices or universities. The
country of France was divided into three estates in the eighteenth century. The feudal system
was part of the society estates dated back to the middle ages. 90 percent of the population was
dominated by peasants but only a small number of them owned the land they cultivated. 60
percent was owned by nobles, the Church and other richer members of the third estate. The
clergy and the nobility, members of the first two estates enjoyed certain privileges by birth.
These groups of members were exempted from paying taxes and enjoyed feudal privileges.
All members of the third estate had to pay taxes to the state which included a direct tax,
called taille, and a number of indirect taxes which were levied on articles of everyday
consumption like salt or tobacco.
The Struggle to Survive
Increase in population led to a rapid increase for food grains. Production of grains
could not keep pace with the demand due to which the price of bread rose rapidly. Due to low
wages paid to the labourers the gap between the poor and the rich widened. Things became
worse whenever drought or hail reduced the harvest.
A Growing Middle Class Envisages an End to Privileges
Peasants used to participate in revolts against taxes and food scarcity. Group of the
third estate had become prosperous and had access to education and new ideas. In the
eighteenth century, new social groups emerged, termed the middle class, who earned their
wealth through expanding overseas trade and by manufacturing woollen and silk textiles that
were either exported or bought by the richer members of society. The third estate included
professions such as lawyers or administrative officials. A person’s social position was
dependent on their merit.
All of these were educated and believed that no group in society should be privileged
by birth. Rather, a person’s social position must depend on his merit. A new form of
government was proposed by Rousseau based on a social contract between people and their
representatives. Similarly, Montesquieu proposed a division of power within the government
between the legislative, the executive and the judiciary. In the USA, this model of
government was put into force. Louis Louis XVI planned to impose further taxes to meet the
expenses.
The Outbreak of the Revolution
In France, the monarch didn't have the power to impose taxes. They had to call a
meeting of the Estates-General, a political body to which the three estates sent their
representatives, to pass proposals for new taxes. Louis XVI, on 5 May 1789, called an
assembly to pass proposals for new taxes. Representatives from the first and second estates
were present and the third estate was represented by its prosperous and educated members.
According to the principle each estate had one vote. But, representatives from the third estate
demanded each member would have one vote. The demand was rejected so members of the
third estate walked out to protest. They swore not to disperse till a constitution drafted for
France that would limit the powers of the monarch.
Due to the severe winter, bread price rose and people had to spend hours in long
queues. Rumours spread that the lords of the manor hired bands of brigands to destroy the
ripe crops. In fear, peasants started looting hoarded grain and burnt down documents
containing records of manorial dues. Nobles fled from their homes. Louis XVI accorded
recognition to the National Assembly and accepted the principle that his powers would from
now on be checked by a constitution. The Assembly passed a decree abolishing the feudal
system of obligations and taxes on 4 August 1789. Tithes were abolished and lands owned by
the Church were confiscated.
France Becomes a Constitutional Monarchy
In 1791, The National Assembly completed the draft of the constitution and its main
object was to limit the powers of the monarch. These powers were now separated and
assigned to different institutions – the legislature, executive and judiciary. France became a
constitutional monarchy.
Citizens voted for a group of electors, who in turn chose the Assembly, but
unfortunately, not every citizen had the right to vote. Men above 25 years of age who paid
taxes equal to at least 3 days of a labourer’s wage were entitled to vote. The Constitution
began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Rights such as the right to life,
freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, equality before law, were established as ‘natural and
inalienable’ rights, that is, they belonged to each human being by birth and could not be taken
away.
France Abolishes Monarchy and Becomes a Republic
In April 1792, the National Assembly voted for a war against Prussia and Austria.
Marseillaise became the national anthem of France. While men were away fighting at the
war, women took care of their families. Large sections of the population demanded that the
revolution had to be carried further, as the Constitution of 1791 gave political rights only to
the richer sections of society. Political clubs were formed and among them, Jacobins became
the most successful club. Members of the Jacobin club included small shopkeepers, artisans
such as shoemakers, pastry cooks, watch-makers, printers, as well as servants and daily-wage
workers. Jacobin members started wearing long striped trousers similar to those worn by
dockworkers. These Jacobins were called the sans-culottes, literally meaning ‘those without
knee breeches’. On August 10 1792, Jacobins stormed the Palace of the Tuileries and held the
king hostage for several hours. Elections were held and all men of 21 years and above got the
right to vote. Monarchy was abolished on 21 September 1792 and France was declared a
republic. Louis XVI was sentenced to death by a court on the charge of treason.
The Reign of Terror
The period from 1793 to 1794 is referred to as the Reign of Terror. People whom
Robespierre saw enemies of the republic were arrested, imprisoned and then tried by a
revolutionary tribunal. If they were declared guilty by the court then they were guillotined.
The guillotine is a device consisting of two poles and a blade with which a person is
beheaded, named after Dr Guillotin. Laws were issued to place a maximum ceiling on wages
and prices. Meat and bread were rationed. Expensive white flour was forbidden to use.
Equality was practised through forms of speech and address. All French men and women
were addressed as Citoyen and Citoyenne (Citizen). In July 1794, he was convicted by a
court arrested and the next day sent to the guillotine.men and women were addressed as
Citoyen and Citoyenne (Citizen). In July 1794, he was convicted by a court arrested and the
next day sent to the guillotine.
A Directory Rules France
Fall of the Jacobin government allowed the wealthier middle classes to seize power.
According to the new constitution, non-propertied sections of society denied voting. It
provided for two elected legislative councils. The government appointed a Directory,
consisting of executives made up of five members. Political instability paved the way for a
military dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte.
Did Women have a Revolution?
Women were active participants from the beginning which brought important
changes in the country France. Women from the third estate had to work for a living and they
didn’t have access to education or job training. Daughters of nobles of the third estate were
allowed to study at a convent. Working women also had to care for their families. Compared
to men their wages were lower. Women also started their political clubs and newspapers. The
Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women was one of the most famous women's
clubs. They demanded equal political rights as men, the right to vote and to hold political
office. The revolutionary government introduced laws to improve the lives of women.
Schooling became compulsory, divorce made legal and they could run small businesses.
During the Reign of Terror, the government closed women’s clubs banning their political
activities. After much struggle, women in France in 1946 won the right to vote.
The Abolition of Slavery
Jacobin regime’s most revolutionary social reform was the abolition of slavery in the
French colonies. In the seventeenth century, slavery trade began. Slaves were brought from
local chieftains, branded and shackled and were packed tightly into ships for the three-month-
long voyage across the Atlantic to the Caribbean. Slave labour met the growing demand in
European markets for sugar, coffee, and indigo. Throughout the eighteenth century, there was
little criticism of slavery in France. In 1794, the Convention legislated to free all slaves in the
French overseas possessions. Napoleon introduced slavery after ten years. In 1848, slavery
was abolished in French colonies.
The Revolution and Everyday Life
 France during 1789 saw changes in the lives of men, women and children. Abolition
of censorship happened in the summer of 1789. Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
proclaimed freedom of speech and expression to be a natural right. Freedom of press meant
opposing views of events could be expressed. Plays, songs and festive processions attracted
large numbers of people.

Summarized Notes

The Beginning of the Revolution (1789)

- Rumors of the King’s army attacking citizens led to widespread panic.
- People stormed government buildings in search of arms, and the commander of the
Bastille was killed.
- The Bastille, symbolizing royal oppression, was destroyed, marking the beginning of
the Revolution.
- Citizens protested the high price of bread and began movements that eventually led
to the execution of King Louis XVI.
French Society in the Late 18th Century
- Society was divided into three estates:
- First Estate: Clergy (exempt from taxes).
- Second Estate: Nobles (enjoyed privileges and tax exemptions).
- Third Estate: Commoners, including peasants, merchants, and artisans (paid heavy
taxes).
- Peasants owned little land; most land was controlled by the nobility and clergy.
- The financial crisis was aggravated by France’s support for the American War of
Independence and high war expenses.
The Struggle to Survive
- Population growth increased the demand for food grains.
- Prices of bread rose, creating hardships for the poor.
- Wages remained low, widening the gap between the rich and poor.
- Droughts and bad harvests worsened the situation, leading to food scarcity and
unrest.
Emergence of the Middle Class and New Ideas
- A wealthy middle class arose through overseas trade and manufacturing industries.
 - They rejected privileges by birth and advocated for merit-based social status.
- Thinkers like Rousseau proposed a social contract, and Montesquieu suggested
separation of powers within government.
- New political ideas from the American Revolution inspired demands for reform in
France.
The Outbreak of the Revolution
- On May 5, 1789, King Louis XVI called the Estates-General to approve new taxes.
- Disagreement arose as the Third Estate demanded "one vote per member" instead of
"one vote per estate."
- The Third Estate formed the National Assembly and pledged to draft a constitution
limiting the monarch's power.
- The Assembly abolished feudal privileges on August 4, 1789, and confiscated
Church property.
France Becomes a Constitutional Monarchy (1791)
- The National Assembly completed the Constitution of 1791, creating a constitutional
monarchy.
- Power was divided among the legislative, executive, and judiciary branches.
- Only men above 25 years paying a certain amount of tax were eligible to vote.
- The Constitution began with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen,
ensuring fundamental freedoms like equality, free speech, and right to life.
Abolition of Monarchy and France Becomes a Republic (1792)
- War was declared on Prussia and Austria in April 1792, leading to political
instability.
- The Jacobins, a radical political club, led a revolution demanding more equality.
- On August 10, 1792, Jacobins stormed the royal palace, and France abolished
monarchy on September 21, 1792.
- King Louis XVI** was executed on charges of treason in January 1793.
The Reign of Terror (1793–1794)
- Under Robespierre, anyone suspected of opposing the Revolution was imprisoned or
executed by the guillotine.
- Laws fixed maximum wages and prices; bread and meat were rationed.
- Citizens were addressed as Citoyen (Citizen) to promote equality.
- Robespierre’s authoritarian rule ended with his execution in July 1794.
A Directory Rules France (1795)
 - After the fall of the Jacobins, power shifted to wealthier middle classes.
- The new Constitution established a Directory of five executives to govern France.
- Political instability paved the way for Napoleon Bonaparte’s rise to power.
Women’s Role in the Revolution
- Women from the Third Estate actively participated in protests.
- They demanded equal rights, education, and political participation.
- Laws were introduced making schooling compulsory and legalizing divorce.
- However, women’s clubs were later banned, and women gained voting rights only in
1946.
Abolition of Slavery
- The Jacobin government abolished slavery in 1794.
- Slavery had fueled European markets by supplying sugar, coffee, and indigo from
colonies.
- Napoleon reintroduced slavery, but it was permanently abolished in 1848.
Impact on Everyday Life
- Censorship was abolished in 1789, and freedom of speech and press became
fundamental rights.
- Newspapers, songs, plays, and public festivals flourished, enabling citizens to
express diverse views.
Legacy of the French Revolution
- The French Revolution laid the foundation for modern democracy and human rights.
- It inspired movements for liberty, equality, and fraternity worldwide, and changed
political structures forever.