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 vii

Contents

Preface xi
Symbols and Abbreviations xv

1 Introduction 1

2 Mathematical Foundations 13
2.1 Matrix Algebra 13
2.2 Vector Algebra 20
2.3 Simultaneous Linear Equation Systems 22
2.4 Linear Dependence 26
2.5 Convex Sets and n-Dimensional Geometry 29

3 Introduction to Linear Programming 35

3.1 Canonical and Standard Forms 35
3.2 A Graphical Solution to the Linear Programming Problem 37
3.3 Properties of the Feasible Region 38
3.4 Existence and Location of Optimal Solutions 38
3.5 Basic Feasible and Extreme Point Solutions 39
3.6 Solutions and Requirement Spaces 41

4 Computational Aspects of Linear Programming 43

4.1 The Simplex Method 43
4.2 Improving a Basic Feasible Solution 48
4.3 Degenerate Basic Feasible Solutions 66
4.4 Summary of the Simplex Method 69

5 Variations of the Standard Simplex Routine 71

5.1 The M-Penalty Method 71
5.2 Inconsistency and Redundancy 78
5.3 Minimization of the Objective Function 85
viii Contents

5.4 Unrestricted Variables 86

5.5 The Two-Phase Method 87

6 Duality Theory 95
6.1 The Symmetric Dual 95
6.2 Unsymmetric Duals 97
6.3 Duality Theorems 100
6.4 Constructing the Dual Solution 106
6.5 Dual Simplex Method 113
6.6 Computational Aspects of the Dual Simplex Method 114
6.7 Summary of the Dual Simplex Method 121

7 Linear Programming and the Theory of the Firm 123

7.1 The Technology of the Firm 123
7.2 The Single-Process Production Function 125
7.3 The Multiactivity Production Function 129
7.4 The Single-Activity Profit Maximization Model 139
7.5 The Multiactivity Profit Maximization Model 143
7.6 Profit Indifference Curves 146
7.7 Activity Levels Interpreted as Individual Product Levels 148
7.8 The Simplex Method as an Internal Resource Allocation Process 155
7.9 The Dual Simplex Method as an Internalized Resource Allocation
Process 157
7.10 A Generalized Multiactivity Profit-Maximization Model 157
7.11 Factor Learning and the Optimum Product-Mix Model 161
7.12 Joint Production Processes 165
7.13 The Single-Process Product Transformation Function 167
7.14 The Multiactivity Joint-Production Model 171
7.15 Joint Production and Cost Minimization 180
7.16 Cost Indifference Curves 184
7.17 Activity Levels Interpreted as Individual Resource Levels 186

8 Sensitivity Analysis 195

8.1 Introduction 195
8.2 Sensitivity Analysis 195
8.2.1 Changing an Objective Function Coefficient 196
8.2.2 Changing a Component of the Requirements Vector 200
8.2.3 Changing a Component of the Coefficient Matrix 202
8.3 Summary of Sensitivity Effects 209

9 Analyzing Structural Changes 217

9.1 Introduction 217
9.2 Addition of a New Variable 217
 Contents ix

9.3 Addition of a New Structural Constraint 219

9.4 Deletion of a Variable 223
9.5 Deletion of a Structural Constraint 223

10 Parametric Programming 227

10.1 Introduction 227
10.2 Parametric Analysis 227
10.2.1 Parametrizing the Objective Function 228
10.2.2 Parametrizing the Requirements Vector 236
10.2.3 Parametrizing an Activity Vector 245
10.A Updating the Basis Inverse 256

11 Parametric Programming and the Theory of the Firm 257

11.1 The Supply Function for the Output of an Activity (or for
an Individual Product) 257
11.2 The Demand Function for a Variable Input 262
11.3 The Marginal (Net) Revenue Productivity Function for an Input 269
11.4 The Marginal Cost Function for an Activity (or Individual
Product) 276
11.5 Minimizing the Cost of Producing a Given Output 284
11.6 Determination of Marginal Productivity, Average Productivity,
Marginal Cost, and Average Cost Functions 286

12 Duality Revisited 297

12.1 Introduction 297
12.2 A Reformulation of the Primal and Dual Problems 297
12.3 Lagrangian Saddle Points 311
12.4 Duality and Complementary Slackness Theorems 315

13 Simplex-Based Methods of Optimization 321

13.1 Introduction 321
13.2 Quadratic Programming 321
13.3 Dual Quadratic Programs 325
13.4 Complementary Pivot Method 329
13.5 Quadratic Programming and Activity Analysis 335
13.6 Linear Fractional Functional Programming 338
13.7 Duality in Linear Fractional Functional Programming 347
13.8 Resource Allocation with a Fractional Objective 353
13.9 Game Theory and Linear Programming 356
13.9.1 Introduction 356
13.9.2 Matrix Games 357
13.9.3 Transformation of a Matrix Game to a Linear Program 361
13.A Quadratic Forms 363
x Contents

13.A.1 General Structure 363

13.A.2 Symmetric Quadratic Forms 366
13.A.3 Classification of Quadratic Forms 367
13.A.4 Necessary Conditions for the Definiteness and Semi-Definiteness of
Quadratic Forms 368
13.A.5 Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for the Definiteness and
Semi-Definiteness of Quadratic Forms 369

14 Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) 373

14.1 Introduction 373
14.2 Set Theoretic Representation of a Production Technology 374
14.3 Output and Input Distance Functions 377
14.4 Technical and Allocative Efficiency 379
14.4.1 Measuring Technical Efficiency 379
14.4.2 Allocative, Cost, and Revenue Efficiency 382
14.5 Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) Modeling 385
14.6 The Production Correspondence 386
14.7 Input-Oriented DEA Model under CRS 387
14.8 Input and Output Slack Variables 390
14.9 Modeling VRS 398
14.9.1 The Basic BCC (1984) DEA Model 398
14.9.2 Solving the BCC (1984) Model 400
14.9.3 BCC (1984) Returns to Scale 401
14.10 Output-Oriented DEA Models 402

References and Suggested Reading 405

Index 411
 xi

Preface

Economists, engineers, and management scientists have long known and

employed the power and versatility of linear programming as a tool for solving
resource allocation problems. Such problems have ranged from formulating a
simple model geared to determining an optimal product mix (e.g. a producing
unit seeks to allocate its limited inputs to a set of production activities under a
given linear technology in order to determine the quantities of the various
products that will maximize profit) to the application of an input analytical tech-
nique called data envelopment analysis (DEA) – a procedure used to estimate
multiple-input, multiple-output production correspondences so that the pro-
ductive efficiency of decision making units (DMUs) can be compared. Indeed,
DEA has now become the subject of virtually innumerable articles in profes-
sional journals, textbooks, and research monographs.
One of the drawbacks of many of the books pertaining to linear programming
applications, and especially those addressing DEA modeling, is that their cov-
erage of linear programming fundamentals is woefully deficient – especially in
the treatment of duality. In fact, this latter area is of paramount importance and
represents the “bulk of the action,” so to speak, when resource allocation
decisions are to be made.
That said, this book addresses the aforementioned shortcomings involving
the inadequate offering of linear programming theory and provides the founda-
tion for the development of DEA. This book will appeal to those wishing to solve
linear optimization problems in areas such as economics (including banking
and finance), business administration and management, agriculture and energy,
strategic planning, public decision-making, health care, and so on. The material
is presented at the advanced undergraduate to beginning graduate level and
moves at an unhurried pace. The text is replete with many detailed example
problems, and the theoretical material is offered only after the reader has been
introduced to the requisite mathematical foundations. The only prerequisites
are a beginning calculus course and some familiarity with linear algebra and
matrices.
xii Preface

Looking to specifics, Chapter 1 provides an introduction to the primal and

dual problems via an optimum product mix problem, while Chapter 2 reviews
the rudiments of vector and matrix operations and then considers topics such as
simultaneous linear equation systems, linear dependence, convex sets, and
some n-dimensional geometry. Specialized mathematical topics are offered in
chapter appendices.
Chapter 3 provides an introduction to the canonical and standard forms of a
linear programming problem. It covers the properties of the feasible region, the
existence and location of optimal solutions, and the correspondence between
basic feasible solutions and extreme point solutions.
The material in Chapter 4 addresses the computational aspects of linear
programming. Here the simplex method is developed and the detection of
degeneracy is presented.
Chapter 5 considers variations of the standard simplex theme. Topics such as
the M-penalty and two-phase methods are developed, along with the detection
of inconsistency and redundancy.
Duality theory is presented in Chapter 6. Here symmetric, as well as unsym-
metric, duals are covered, along with an assortment of duality theorems. The
construction of the dual solution and the dual simplex method round out this
key chapter.
Chapter 7 begins with a basic introduction to the technology of a firm via
activity analysis and then moves into single- and multiple-process production
functions, as well as single- and multiple-activity profit maximization models.
Both the primal and dual simplex methods are then presented as internal
resource allocation mechanisms. Factor learning is next introduced in the con-
text of an optimal product mix. All this is followed by a discussion of joint pro-
duction processes and production transformation functions, along with the
treatment of cost minimization in a joint production setting.
The discussion in Chapter 8 deals with the sensitivity analysis of the optimal
solution (e.g. changing an objective function coefficient or changing a compo-
nent of the requirements vector) while Chapter 9 analyzes structural changes
(e.g. addition of a new variable or structural constraint). Chapter 10 focuses
on parametric programming and consequently sets the stage for the material
presented in the next chapter. To this end, Chapter 11 employs parametric pro-
gramming to develop concepts such as the demand function for a variable input
and the supply function for the output of an activity. Notions such as the mar-
ginal and average productivity functions along with marginal and average cost
functions are also developed.
In Chapter 12, the concept of duality is revisited; the primal and dual pro-
blems are reformulated and re-examined in the context of Lagrangian saddle
points, and a host of duality and complementary slackness theorems are offered.
This treatment affords the reader an alternative view of duality theory and,
 Preface xiii

depending on the level of mathematical sophistication of the reader, can be con-

sidered as optional or can be omitted on a first reading.
Chapter 13 deals with primal and dual quadratic programs, the complemen-
tary pivot method, primal and dual linear fractional functional programs, and
(matrix) game theory solutions via linear programming.
Data envelopment analysis (DEA) is the subject of Chapter 14. Topics such as
the set theoretic representation of a production technology, input and output
distance functions, technical and allocative efficiency, cost and revenue effi-
ciency, the production correspondence, input-oriented models under constant
and variable returns to scale, and output-oriented models are presented. DEA
model solutions are also discussed.
A note of thanks is extended to Bharat Kolluri, Rao Singamsetti, and Jim Peta.
I have benefited considerably from conversations held with these colleagues
over a great many years. Additionally, Alice Schoenrock accurately and
promptly typed the entire manuscript. Her efforts are greatly appreciated.
I would also like to thank Mindy Okura-Marszycki, editor, Mathematics and
Statistics, and Kathleen Pagliaro, assistant editor, at John Wiley & Sons, for their
professionalism and encouragement.
 xv

Symbols and Abbreviations

■ Denotes end of example

n
n-dimensional Euclidean space
n
+ {x n
|x ≥ O}
(xo) Tangent support cone
Region of admissible solutions
(xo)+ Polar support cone
(xo)∗ Dual support cone
A Transpose of a matrix A
Index set of binding constraints
∇ Del operator
O Null matrix (vector)
In Identity matrix of order n
(m × n) Order of a matrix (with m rows and n columns)
A B Matrix A is transformed into matrix B
|A| Determinant of a square matrix A
Set of all square matrices
A−1 Inverse of matrix A
n Vector space
x Norm of x
ei ith unit column vector
ρ(A) Rank of a matrix A
dim Dimension of a vector space
δ(xo) Spherical δ-neighborhood of xo
xc Convex combination
Hyperplane
+ −
( ), ( ) Open half-planes
+ −
[ ], [ ] Closed half-planes
Cone
Ray or half-line
lim Lower limit
xvi Symbols and Abbreviations

lim Upper limit

AE Allocative efficiency
BCC Banker, Charnes, and Cooper
CCR Charnes, Cooper, and Rhodes
CE Cost efficiency
CRS Constant returns to scale
DBLP Dual of PBLP (multiplier form of (primal) linear program)
DEA Data envelopment analysis
DLP Dual of PLP
DMU Decision making unit
EDLP Extension of DLP
Eff Efficient
IPF Input distance function
Isoq Isoquant
LCP Linear complementarity problem
ODF Output distance function
P1 Phase 1
P2 Phase 2
PBLP Envelopment form of the (primal) linear program
PLP Primal linear program
RE Revenue efficiency
TE Technical efficiency
VRS Variable returns to scale
 1

Introduction

This book deals with the application of linear programming to firm decision
making. In particular, an important resource allocation problem that often
arises in actual practice is when a set of inputs, some of which are limited in
supply over a particular production period, is to be utilized to produce, using
a given technology, a mix of products that will maximize total profit. While a
model such as this can be constructed in a variety of ways and under different
sets of assumptions, the discussion that follows shall be limited to the linear
case, i.e. we will consider the short-run static profit-maximizing behavior of
the multiproduct, multifactor competitive firm that employs a fixed-coefficients
technology under certainty (Dorfman 1951, 1953; Naylor 1966).
How may we interpret the assumptions underlying this profit maximiza-
tion model?

1) All-around perfect competition – the prices of the firm’s product and

variable inputs are given.
2) The firm employs a static model – all prices, the technology, and the
supplies of the fixed factors remain constant over the production period.
3) The firm operates under conditions of certainty – the model is deterministic
in that all prices and the technology behave in a completely systematic (non-
random) fashion.
4) All factors and products are perfectly divisible – fractional (noninteger) quan-
tities of factors and products are admissible at an optimal feasible solution.
5) The character of the firm’s production activities, which represent specific
ways of combining fixed and variable factors in order to produce a unit of
output (in the case where the firm produces a single product) or a unit of
an individual product (when the number of activities equals or exceeds
the number of products), is determined by a set of technical decisions inter-
nal to the firm. These input activities are:
a) independent in that no interaction effects exist between activities;
b) linear, i.e. the input/output ratios for each activity are constant along
with returns to scale (if the use of all inputs in an activity increases by

Linear Programming and Resource Allocation Modeling, First Edition. Michael J. Panik.
© 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2019 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2 1 Introduction

a fixed amount, the output produced by that activity increases by the

same amount);
c) additive, e.g. if two activities are used simultaneously, the final quantities
of inputs and outputs will be the arithmetic sums of the quantities that
would result if these activities were operated separately. In addition, total
profit generated from all activities equals the sum of the profits from each
individual activity; and
d) finite – the number of input activities or processes available for use dur-
ing any production period is limited.
6) All structural relations exhibit direct proportionality – the objective func-
tion and all constraints are linear; unit profit and the fixed-factor inputs per
unit of output for each activity are directly proportional to the level of oper-
ation of the activity (thus, marginal profit equals average profit).
7) The firm’s objective is to maximize total profit subject to a set of structural
activities, fixed-factor availabilities, and nonnegativity restrictions on the
activity levels. Actually, this objective is accomplished in two distinct stages.
First, a technical optimization problem is solved in that the firm chooses a set
of production activities that requires the minimum amount of the fixed and
variable inputs per unit of output. Second, the firm solves the aforemen-
tioned constrained maximum problem.
8) The firm operates in the short run in that a certain number of its inputs are
fixed in quantity.

Why is this linear model for the firm important? It is intuitively clear that the
more sophisticated the type of capital equipment employed in a production proc-
ess, the more inflexible it is likely to be relative to the other factors of production
with which it is combined. That is, the machinery in question must be used in
fixed proportions with regard to certain other factors of production (Dorfman
1953, p. 143). For the type of process just described, no factor substitution is pos-
sible; a given output level can be produced by one and only one input combina-
tion, i.e. the inputs are perfectly complementary. For example, it is widely
recognized that certain types of chemical processes exhibit this characteristic
in that, to induce a particular type of chemical reaction, the input proportions
(coefficient) must be (approximately) fixed. Moreover, mechanical processes such
as those encountered in cotton textile manufacturing and machine-tool produc-
tion are characterized by the presence of this limitationality, i.e. in the latter case,
constant production times are logged on a fixed set of machines by a given num-
ber of operators working with specific grades of raw materials.
For example, suppose that a firm produces three types of precision tools
(denoted x1, x2, and x3) made from high-grade steel. Four separate production
operations are used: casting, grinding, sharpening, and polishing. The set of
input–output coefficients (expressed in minutes per unit of output), which
describe the firm’s technology (the firm’s stage one problem, as alluded to
 1 Introduction 3

above, has been solved) is presented in Table 1.1. (Note that each of the three
columns represents a separate input activity or process.)
Additionally, capacity limitations exist with respect to each of the four pro-
duction operations in that upper limits on their availability are in force. That
is, per production run, the firm has at its disposal 5000 minutes of casting time,
3000 minutes of grinding time, 3700 minutes of sharpening time, and 2000 min-
utes of polishing time. Finally, the unit profit values for tools x1, x2, and x3 are
$22.50, $19.75, and $26.86, respectively. (Here these figures each depict unit
revenue less unit variable cost and are computed before deducting fixed costs.
Moreover, we are tacitly assuming that what is produced is sold.) Given this
information, it is easily shown that the optimization problem the firm must
solve (i.e. the stage-two problem mentioned above) will look like (1.1):
max f = 22 50x1 + 19 75x2 + 26 86x3 s t subject to
13x1 + 10x2 + 16x3 ≤ 5000
12x1 + 8x2 + 20x3 ≤ 3000
11
8x1 + 4x2 + 9x3 ≤ 3700
5x1 + 4x2 + 6x3 ≤ 2000
x1 , x2 ,x3 ≥ 0
How may we rationalize the structure of this problem? First, the objective func-
tion f represents total profit, which is the sum of the individual (gross) profit
contributions of the three products, i.e.
3
total profit = total profit from xj sales
j=1

3
= unit profit from xj sales number of units of xj sold
j=1

Table 1.1 Input–output coefficients.

Tools

x1 x2 x3 Operations

13 10 16 Casting
12 8 20 Grinding
8 4 9 Sharpening
5 4 6 Polishing
4 1 Introduction

Next, if we consider the first structural constraint inequality (the others can be
interpreted in a similar fashion), we see that total casting time used per produc-
tion run cannot exceed the total amount available, i.e.
3
total casting time used = total casting time used by xj
j=1

3
= casting time used per unit of xj
j=1
number of units of xj produced ≤ 5000
Finally, the activity levels (product quantities) x1, x2, and x3 are nonnegative,
thus indicating that the production activities are nonreversible, i.e. the fixed
inputs cannot be created from the outputs.
To solve (1.1) we shall employ a specialized computational technique called the
simplex method. The details of the simplex routine, as well as its mathematical
foundations and embellishments, will be presented in Chapters 2–5. Putting com-
putational considerations aside for the time being, the types of information sets
that the firm obtains from an optimal solution to (1.1) can be characterized as
follows. The optimal product mix is determined (from this result management
can specify which product to produce in positive amounts and which ones to omit
from the production plan) as well as the optimal activity levels (which indicate
the exact number of units of each product produced). In addition, optimal
resource utilization information is also generated (the solution reveals the
amounts of the fixed or scarce resources employed in support of the optimal
activity levels) along with the excess (slack) capacity figures (if the total amount
available of some fixed resource is not fully utilized, the optimal solution indicates
the amount left idle). Finally, the optimal dollar value of total profit is revealed.
Associated with (1.1) (hereafter called the primal problem) is a symmetric
problem called its dual. While Chapter 6 presents duality theory in considerable
detail, let us simply note without further elaboration here that the dual problem
deals with the internal valuation (pricing) of the firm’s fixed or scarce resources.
These (nonmarket) prices or, as they are commonly called, shadow prices serve
to signal the firm when it would be beneficial, in terms of recouping forgone
profit (since the capacity limitations restrict the firm’s production and thus
profit opportunities) to acquire additional units of the fixed factors. Relative
to (1.1), the dual problem appears as
min g = 5000u1 + 3000u2 + 3700u3 + 2000u4 s t
13u1 + 12u2 + 8u3 + 5u4 ≥ 22 50
10u1 + 8u2 + 4u3 + 4u4 ≥ 19 75 12
16u1 + 20u2 + 9u3 + 6u4 ≥ 26 86
u1 ,u2 ,u3 ,u4 ≥ 0,
 1 Introduction 5

where the dual variables u1, …, u4 are the shadow prices associated with the pri-
mal capacity constraints.
What is the interpretation of the form of this dual problem? First, the objec-
tive g depicts the total imputed (accounting) value of the firm’s fixed
resources, i.e.
total imputed value of all fixed resources
4
= total imputed value of the ith resource
i=1
4
= number of units of the ith resource available
i=1
shadow price of the ith resource
Clearly, the firm must make the value of this figure as small as possible. That is,
it must minimize forgone profit. Next, looking to the first structural constraint
inequality in (1.2) (the rationalization of the others follows suit), we see that the
total imputed value of all resources going into the production of a unit of x1
cannot fall short of the profit per unit of x1, i.e.
total imputed value of all resources per unit of x1
4
= imputed value of the ith resource per unit of x1
i=1
4
= number of units of the ith resource per unit of x1
i=1
shadow price of the ith resource ≥ 22 50
Finally, as is the case for any set of prices, the shadow prices u1, …, u4 are all
nonnegative.
As will become evident in Chapter 6, the dual problem does not have to be
solved explicitly; its optimal solution is obtained as a byproduct of the optimal
solution to the primal problem (and vice versa). What sort of information is pro-
vided by the optimal dual solution? The optimal (internal) valuation of the
firm’s fixed resources is exhibited (from this data the firm can discern which
resources are in excess supply and which ones are “scarce” in the sense that total
profit could possibly be increased if the supply of the latter were augmented)
along with the optimal shadow price configuration (each such price indicates
the increase in total profit resulting from a one unit increase in the associated
fixed input). Moreover, the optimal (imputed) value of inputs for each prod-
uct is provided (the solution indicates the imputed value of all fixed resources
entering into the production of a unit of each of the firm’s outputs) as well as the
optimal accounting loss figures (here, management is provided with informa-
tion pertaining to the amount by which the imputed value of all resources used
6 1 Introduction

to produce a unit of some product exceeds the unit profit level for the same).
Finally, the optimal imputed value of all fixed resources is determined. Inter-
estingly enough, this quantity equals the optimal dollar value of total profit
obtained from the primal problem, as it must at an optimal feasible solution
to the primal-dual pair of problems.
In the preceding model we made the assumption that the various production
activities were technologically independent. However, if we now assume that they
are technologically interdependent in that each product can be produced by
employing more than one process, then we may revise the firm’s objective to
one where a set of production quotas are to be fulfilled at minimum cost. By invok-
ing this assumption we may construct what is called a joint production model.
As far as a full description of this type of production program is concerned, let
us frame it in terms of the short-run static cost-minimizing behavior of a multi-
product, multifactor competitive firm that employs a fixed-coefficients technol-
ogy. How can we interpret the assumptions given in support of this model?

1) Perfect competition in the factor markets – the prices of the firm’s primary
and shadow inputs are given.
2) The firm employs a static model – all prices, the technology, and the output
quotas remain constant over the production period.
3) The firm operates under conditions of certainty – the model is deterministic
in that all prices and the technology behave in a completely systematic (non-
random) fashion.
4) All factors and products are perfectly divisible – fractional quantities of fac-
tors and products are admissible at an optimal feasible solution.
5) The character of the firm’s production activities, which now represent ways
of producing a set of outputs from the application of one unit of a primary
input, is determined by a set of technical decisions internal to the firm. These
output activities are:
a) independent in that no interaction effects exist among activities;
b) linear, i.e. the output/input ratios for each activity are constant along
with the input response to an increase in outputs (if the production of
all outputs in an activity increases by a fixed amount, then the input level
required by the process must increase by the same amount);
c) additive, e.g. if two activities are used simultaneously, the final quantities
of inputs and outputs will be the arithmetic sums of the quantities which
would result if these activities were operated separately. Moreover, the
total cost figure resulting from all output activities equals the sum of
the costs from each individual activity; and
d) finite – the number of output activities or processes available for use dur-
ing any production period is limited.
6) All structural relations exhibit direct proportionality – the objective func-
tion and all constraints are linear; unit cost and the fixed-output per unit of
 1 Introduction 7

input values for each activity are directly proportional to the level of oper-
ation of the activity. (Thus marginal cost equals average cost.)
7) The firm’s objective is to minimize total cost subject to a set of structural
activities, fixed output quotas, and nonnegativity restrictions on the activity
levels. This objective is also accomplished in two stages, i.e. in stage one a
technical optimization problem is solved in that the firm chooses a set of out-
put activities which yield the maximum amounts of the various outputs per
unit of the primary factors. Second, the firm solves the indicated constrained
minimization problem.
8) The short-run prevails in that the firm’s minimum output requirements are
fixed in quantity.

For the type of output activities just described, no output substitution is possi-
ble; producing more of one output and less of another is not technologically
feasible, i.e. the outputs are perfectly complementary or limitational in that
they must all change together.
As an example of the type of model just described, let us assume that a firm
employs three grades of the primary input labor (denoted x1, x2, and x3) to pro-
duce four separate products: chairs, benches, tables, and stools. The set of out-
put–input coefficients (expressed in units of output per man-hour) which
describe the firm’s technology appears in Table 1.2. (Here each of the three col-
umns depicts a separate output activity.) Additionally, output quotas exist with
respect to each of the four products in that lower limits on the number of units
produced must not be violated, i.e. per production run, the firm must produce at
least eight chairs, four benches, two tables, and eight stools. Finally, the unit cost
coefficients for the labor grades x1, x2, and x3 are $8.50, $9.75, and $9.08, respec-
tively. (Each of these latter figures depicts unit primary resource cost plus unit

Table 1.2 Output–input coefficients.

Grades of Labor

x1 x2 x3 Outputs

1 1 1
Chairs
16 14 18
1 1 1
Benches
4 4 6
1 1 1
Tables
20 25 30
1 1 1
Stools
4 3 6
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protect their own native manufacturers, to admit amongst them a
formidable rival, who would inundate them with her produce, and
could take nothing from them in return.
But if the necessities and weakness of Belgium, render it
impracticable for her to continue as she is, and if national
independence be irreconcilable with her prosperity, the question
which occupies the thoughts of her discontented subjects, is to what
quarter she shall turn for relief from without. To attach herself again
to Austria, as before the French revolution, is a matter impracticable
and could be productive of no advantage, even if it were otherwise.
The condition of the Rhenish provinces, under the dominion of
Prussia, would make her eager for a similar incorporation, but this
the interests of Europe, as well as those of Prussia herself forbid.
An union with France would be equally hopeless and incompatible
with the policy of the Congress of Vienna, and would, with the
exception of the districts immediately bordering on the French
frontier, be in the highest degree distasteful to the population at
large. Their annexation to the territory of France in 1794, had been
resisted by the clergy, and its termination in 1814 was hailed with
rapturous impatience by all classes. Their condition under the empire
had been one “of the most insignificant vassalage. Their religious
institutions destroyed, their cherished privileges annihilated, and all
their rights and immunities for which they had been contending for
centuries before, trodden under foot.”[41] Even their commerce and
manufactures were jeopardised by the jealous rivalry of their new
allies, their clergy debased, and their youth drafted off by
conscription to feed the slaughter of Europe. The recollection of this
has left no vigorous desire for a return to fraternization with France,
nor would France herself, however important Belgium might be as a
political acquisition, consult the interest of her native manufactures
by imparting an equality in all her advantages to competitors so
formidable. Still so impatient are the Belgians to fly from the “ills
they have,” that at the present moment, whilst the possibility of war
between France and the rest of Europe occupies the attention of all
the world, I was repeatedly assured in Belgium that it would only
require France to give the signal, and a powerful section of the
people would declare in her favour. So conscious are all parties of
this, that the bare probability of war in Europe is looked to with the
utmost alarm by the government, and the Controleur, an
appropriately named journal, the organ of the clerical party, was
anxiously busied, whilst I was in Ghent, in decrying any idea of a re-
union with France, declaring in one of its publications early in
September: “Et comme nous n’avons pas pour habitude de cacher
notre manière de voir, nous dirons rondement, que nous serions
plutôt Hollandais que Français.—En dépit de M. Rogier.”
Another suggestion has been the partition of Belgium between the
surrounding states, but to this equally insurmountable obstacles
present themselves. Antwerp and the districts on the Dutch frontier,
if assigned to Holland, would have no longer employment for their
capital and ships, and would again sink under the more favoured
rivalry of Amsterdam and Rotterdam; and as Hainault and the
fortresses along the Meuse and the Sambre would necessarily fall to
the lot of France, a measure so menacing to the future security of
Europe, would not be tolerated by her courts, unless these
strongholds were garrisoned by the allies, an expedient which would
be equally opposed by the pride and ambition of the French.
If the further experience should unfortunately decide finally against
the permanence of Belgium as an independent nation, the only
practical expedient which remains, and that which has already
received the sanction of all the great powers of Europe, would be a
return to the disposition made by the Congress of Vienna, and the
reincorporation of Holland and Belgium, to form again the united
kingdom of the Netherlands. Personal aversion to King William would
no longer oppose a barrier to such an arrangement, as his dominion
has passed into other hands, and the Prince of Orange, the present
king at all times enjoyed the popular affections, if not the national
confidence of the people. Should any fresh convulsion arise, which
for the sake of the peace of Europe, not less than for that of King
Leopold, it is most earnestly to be hoped may be yet averted, all I
have either seen or been able to learn from those best informed
upon the matter, leaves little doubt in my mind, that the almost
unanimous wish of the people, should they be compelled to change
their present dynasty, would point to the restoration of the House of
Nassau.
END OF VOL. I.

LONDON:
PRINTED BY SCHULZE AND CO., 13, POLAND STREET.
 FOOTNOTES
[1] Made by Nurse and Co. Crawford Street, Bryanstone Square.
[2] So styled in the act by which Philip II, ceded to them the
Sovereignty of the Low Countries.
[3] Wordsworth’s Sonnet to Bruges.
[4] Query, St. Salvador.
[5] I must take this early opportunity of adding my tribute of
gratitude to the compiler of these most invaluable volumes, the
Hand-books of Northern and Southern Germany, they have been
my constant companions, and I cannot do less than unite with
every tourist, whom I met on the continent, in pronouncing them
as matchless in the value and variety of their contents, as they
are faultless in their accuracy.
[6] It is the custom in Belgium, in order to distinguish one
member of the same family, to append to the surname of the
husband that of his lady.
[7] At Ghent, this fee has been reduced to one half the sum.
[8] De l’Industrie en Belgique, Causes de Decadence et de
Prosperité, &c. par M. N. Briavionne, Bruxelles, 1839, vol. ii, p.
345.
[9] By the French commercial code, there are three descriptions
of trading companies. First, sociétés en nom collectif, with all the
attributes of an ordinary partnership in England; secondly,
sociétés en commandite, where the great majority of the
associated capitalists are sleeping partners, with no share in the
management, no name in the firm, and responsible only to the
extent of their registered capital, one or more of the partners,
alone, having the conduct of the establishment, and being
responsible to the public to the full extent of their property; and
thirdly, the sociétés anonymes, which are, in every incident and
particular analogous to the joint stock companies of England, only
with a liability, limited in every instance to the amount of their
shares.
 [10] These engines are in great esteem, and I have found them
in almost universal use in Belgium. The one alluded to above, was
consuming from 5½ of to 6½ lbs. of coals, per hour, per horse
power; whilst a low pressure engine in England, would require
from 12 to 14lbs. In this country, they are likewise coming in
greater demand, although here the saving of coal is a matter of
less importance, and may be, in some degree, counterbalanced
by the risk, and more frequent repairs, incidental to high pressure
engines.
[11] The price of coal at Ghent, when I visited its manufactories
was 20 francs for 1000 kilogrammes, or about sixteen shillings a
ton for coals of Mons, which are brought from a considerable
distance by the Scheldt; those of Charleroi are of better quality,
and a shade higher in price. Coals have increased in price in
Belgium within the last few years, as well from the greater
demand, as an apprehension that the coal fields of the Ardennes
were rapidly exhausting, but this alarm has of late been regarded
as groundless. England, with a liberality, which manufactoring
jealousy scarcely sanctions, has recently permitted the free export
of coal both to Belgium, France and Prussia, a boon for which
these governments, which are prohibiting British manufactures,
and their mechanics and mill owners, who are contending with
our own for the market, cannot be too grateful.
[12] Three hundred bundles per day, being as nearly as possible
eleven cuts to the spindle.
[13] COMPARATIVE WAGES PAID WORKERS.

Wages per
Wages per day of Wages per day
Description of day of 11
11½ hours. of 11½ hours.
Workers. hours.
England. Belfast.
Ghent.
Average. Average. Average.
s. d. s. d. d. s. d.
Spreaders 1 3 to 1 6 10 0 11¾
First Drawing 1 0 1 3 8½ 0 8½
Second
1 0 1 3 8½ 0 8½
Drawing
Roving 1 1 1 5 9 0 9¼
Carding 1 0 1 6 7½ to 9½ 0 9¼
Spinner 1 0 1 4 10 0 8½
Doffer 0 8 5½ 0 4¾
Reeler (piece
1 0 1 6 10 to 11 0 9¼
work)
Dyer 2 6 3 0 1s. 4d. 1 3
Bundler 2 6 3 0 1s. 5½ 1 5
Hackler
(Roughing for 1s. 6d. 1s. 4d. 1 7
Machine)
Overlooker 4s. 6d. 3s. 6d. 2 4½

These wages, at present, paying in Ghent, it must be borne in

mind, are hardly a fair criterion, as flax spinning being entirely a
new trade there, it was necessary to give an inducement by extra
wages, for the cotton spinner’s to leave the work to which they
were accustomed; but this will soon find its level.
[14] One cannot but remark the wretched quality of the window-
glass, even in the most luxurious houses. It is uneven, warped,
and of a dirty-green colour. It is chiefly made at Charleroi.
[15] The joke against Mechlin arises from an alarm being given
that the cathedral was on fire, by some one who had seen the
moonbeams shining through its gothic steeple—whence the
proverb, that “the wise men of Mechlin went to put out the
moon.”
[16] Les machines sont là aussi multipliés, aussi variées que les
besoins où on les applique: il y en a une pour chaque pensée, ou
plutôt, c’est la même pensée qui a mille ministres; l’une scie,
l’autre fend, l’autre coupe, l’autre rabotte; il y en a pour degrossir
la pièce, il y en a pour lui donner la forme exacte, il y en a pour
l’orner; il y en a pour la polir, le ciseau, le tour, le rabot, l’emporte
pièce la tenaille, le marteau tous les instruments du menuisier, du
tourneur, du forgeron, s’évertuent sur le fer comme sur le bois la
plus tendre, mais sans menuisier, sans tourneur, sans forgeron—la
main qui les meut est une machine, cette main, toujours sûre,
toujours ferme, délicate, légère, qui n’a pas d’inégalité, qui ne
depende pas d’une pensée capricieuse, qui ne se lasse pas, qui ne
s’alourdit pas, qui ne vieillit pas! * * * * Cette machine n’a besoin
de personne: on lui donne sa tâche un certain jour, et pourvu
qu’on ne lui retire pas la portion de force motrice qui l’anime, elle
terminera cette tâche à jour fixe: elle vous la livrera comme un
ouvrier à la pièce: vous arriverez un beau matin, et vous la
trouverez sortie du cylindre et tournant à vide, en attendant que
vous lui donniez une nouvelle tâche.—From an account of the
great works at Seraing, in the Revue de Paris.
[17] “Les manufactures de Manchester ne voulant pas s’en
remettre de ce soin au gouvernement, se sont cotisés, out réuni
une somme annuelle suffisante pour organiser autour de leur ville
une ligne de douane specialement consacré à empêcher la sortie
des mécaniques qu’ils inventaient.”—De l’Industrie de Belgique, vol.
ii, p. 326.
[18] “She was in black down to her toes, with her hair concealed
under a cambric border, laid close to the forehead: she was one of
those kind of nuns, and please your honour, of which there are a
good many in Flanders.” “By thy description Trim,” said my uncle
Toby, “I dare say she was a young Beguine, of whom there are
none to be found any where, except in the Spanish Netherlands,
they differ from other nuns in this, that they can quit their
cloisters, if they chose to marry—they visit, and take care of the
sick by profession, but I had rather, for my own part, they did it
out of good nature.”—Sterne.
[19] The 17th article of the Constitution Belge, contains the
following pithy enactment as to national education.
“L’Enseignement est libre, toute mesure préventive est interdite.”
[20] “Quelques mots sur l’état actuel de l’instruction primaire en
Belgique, et sur la nécessité de l’améliorer.”
See also a clever paper by R. W. Rawson, Esq. in the Quarterly
Journal of the Statistical Society of London, vol. 2, p. 385.
[21] The linen which we saw was of low quality, coarse and
strong, and by no means cheap. It consisted of sheeting, for
export to the Havannah, which, for five quarter’s wide, was sold
at one shilling a yard.
[22] This latter quantity is found in the tables published by the
Board of Trade, under the head of “Flax, Tow, or Codilla of Hemp
and Tow.” The importation of “undressed hemp” is under another
head, and amounts to 730,375 cwt.
[23] It is curious that this process which all concur in
representing to be one requiring the utmost cleanliness and
purity, should of all places be performed in Holland with an utter
neglect of both. In an able document by Mr. Acton, in the
Quarterly Journal of Agriculture for 1832, he gives the following
account of the operation. “The mode of watering flax in Holland,
and in the low lands of Belgium and France, is to put a dam
across the canal, clean out the weeds and mud for a few yards
next the dam, lay in three or four rows of sheaves of flax next the
dam, and then covering these six inches deep with the rank
herbage that grows in the canal, and the mud raked up from its
bottom. A few more courses of sheaves are next placed in the
same way as the first, and covered in the same way with weeds
and mud, till the whole is put in steep. These fosses, and the
mode of placing the flax in them, are as they ought to be, but the
propriety of dragging up so much mud or slime from the bottom
of the canals, to cover the sheaves, six inches deep, may well be
doubted, it cannot fail to besmear the lint so much, as to render it
so nasty, that it would require to be much rinsed and washed in
the water to remove the mud. This not only creates labour, by no
means the most agreeable, but must greatly injure the flax by
ruffling it in the water, a thing that ought to be avoided.”—Vol. iv.
p. 174.
[24] This important association has been for some years in
operation, and amongst its functions has sent several
commissioners into other countries to ascertain the relative value
of their various processes. The result of these inquiries, they have
condensed into a short manual for the use of the farmers and
others engaged in the trade in Flanders; in order to confine it to
whom it has been written and printed in Flemish. A copy of this
valuable document translated into French, for which I am
indebted to a particular source, I have placed in the appendix to
these volumes. Knowing it as I do, to be the genuine and anxious
suggestions of the best practical men in Belgium, it may be
regarded as a faithful guide to their process, and would be well
deserving of extensive circulation in the flax districts of Great
Britain and Ireland.
[25] It consists, I believe, of about thirteen sail of small vessels.
[26] On the first out-break of the revolution, the people of
Antwerp, strongly opposed to it, sent the following address to the
King of Holland. “Sire, it is not without painful sensations that we
have been apprised of the demand made to your Majesty, tending
to obtain a separation of interests between the southern and
northern provinces. The fear that our silence may be interpreted
as an adhesion to this proposition, imposes upon us the duty of
exposing to your Majesty, that the wish is in no way participated
in by us. The experience of fifteen years has proved to us, in the
most evident manner, that is to the free and mutual exchange of
produce, that we are indebted for reciprocal prosperity. The
advantages that navigation derives from the colonies, the
increasing outlets that these same colonies constantly offer to the
produce of our industry, are irrefragible proofs, that any
separation would not only be fatal to this province, but to the
commercial industry of all Belgium. Intimately persuaded of this
great truth, we dare to make it known to your Majesty, with that
confidence and respect inspired by a King, who desires the
welfare of his people, and who will never labour but in the
interest of its well understood prosperity.”—Antwerp, September
13th, 1830.
[27] De l’Industrie en Belgique, vol. 2, p. 384.
[28] Exposé de la situation de la Province de la Flandre Orientale,
pour l’année 1840. Ghent de l’imprimerie de Vanryckegem-
Hovaerz, imprimeur du Governement Provincial.
The numbers are as follows:
Two whose deficiency is between 1,000 ff. and 2,000.
Four ” ” 2,000 ” 3,000.
One ” ” 3,000 ” 4,000.
One ” ” 6,000 ” 7,000.
Two ” ” 7,000 ” 8,000.
One ” ” 14,000 ” 15,000.
One ” ” 19,000 ” 20,000.
One ” ” 20,000 ” 25,000.
Three ” ” 25,000 ” 30,000.
One ” ” 35,000 ” 40,000.
Two ” ” unknown
[29] Le Guide Indispensable, p. 103.
[30] The Belgian manufacturers themselves were, as I have
before stated, perfectly alive to the mischief which the separation
from Holland was certain to entail upon them; and it is curious, as
well as interesting, to remark the circumstantial fidelity with which
these protectors warned the movement party of the
consequences which they were provoking, and which have since
been accomplished to the letter. The following reasons against
separation from Holland were published at the time in one of the
journals of Antwerp, when the prospect of Repealing the Union
was most unpalatable:
“Ever since some parts of our southern provinces have unfurled
the banner of insurrection, all business has ceased. Circulation
has been interrupted, and several establishments, which required
the employment of great capital and afforded the means of
subsistance to numerous families, have been destroyed and
burned. Public tranquillity disturbed in every manner; men, the
most peaceable, and a short time ago happy in the bosom of their
families, prospering under the protection of order and the laws,
now forcibly torn from their homes to perform military service of
which they are ignorant, and which they dislike; their property
every day exposed and ready to become the prey of an unbridled
populace—a state of anarchy which will end by creating parties
who will shortly lacerate each other; and lastly, a most forbidding
future preparing for them. Such is a faint picture of the evils
which a rebellious and unconstitutional rising has already
produced. But all that has hitherto been witnessed is in no wise to
be compared to the consequences which must result from an
unseasonable separation, which has been demanded with a levity
which no man of sense can comprehend.
It is true, that among the men who figure as the authors and
supporters of a separation, there are to be observed no
manufacturers: and, indeed, what manufacturer, what merchant,
what agriculturist even, could fall into such an error?
You cry out for a separation, and would fain persuade yourselves
that it would be all in your favour. With similar levity you take
upon yourselves to dictate the conditions of a separation. This
shows but little foresight.
The northern part of the kingdom has taken up the gauntlet,
which you so imprudently threw down. Hear one of their organs,
and consider the consequences which must, and ought to ensue
to Belgium when once isolated and abandoned to itself.”
The following is the reply of the Dutch to your challenge:—
“‘We are glad,’ say they, ‘that the proposal for a divorce has been
made by you. Let it take place, and the cloud which has darkened
the horizon of our country will be dissipated. A glorious sun will
then soon shine upon it. Soon will the decadence of Amsterdam
and its causes cease, and the separation will give it the life and
activity which it lost by the union.
But let us examine what will be the result of this divorce to the
northern provinces?
Relieved from an odious manufacturing system, we shall be able
to establish our customs on a perfectly commercial system:
Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Dort, Middleburgh, will become so many
free ports, into which moderate duties, exempt from vexatious
modes of collection, will bring back our old commerce in all its
force. The duties at present imposed upon sugar, coffee, and
other articles of trade, will be revoked.
The inhabitants will purchase fuel, clothing, stuffs, and all the
commodities which trade, manufacture, and the necessities of a
people require, in England, and wherever they can produce them
upon better terms than in the southern provinces, where all these
articles will be loaded with duties and restrictions, and will be
therefore dearer.
Our country will again become the centre and mart of all the
productions and riches of the world which are destined for and
consumed in Germany and the provinces of France bordering on
the Rhine, as well as in many other places which now escape us.
The products of our colonies will be no longer carried except to
our own ports, to the exclusion of all others, and they will be
freed from all the duties and charges with which they are at
present burdened, and which our Sovereign has established for
the advantage of the Belgians alone. Thus not only the mother
country, but the colonies, also, will enjoy the advantage of the
separation. The duty of 25 per cent. established at Java in favour
of the Belgians will be abolished, and it is thus that, wherever the
standard of Holland shall be displayed, liberty, prosperity, and
public happiness will prevail; and let no one present to you as a
burdensome set-off the debt which will remain to our charge.’”
[31] White, v. i, p. 124, &c.
[32] A full detail of the state of the kingdom, at the outbreak of
the revolution will be found in a volume published by the Baron
Keverberg, who had been governor of East Flanders under the
King of Holland, Du Royaume des Pays-Bas, sous la rapport de
son origine, de son developement, et de sa crise actuelle,
Brussels, 1836.
 [33] Essai historique et critique sur la révolution Belge. Par M.
Nothcomb. Brussels, 1833.
[34] A copy of this singular document, will be found at the end of
these volume.
[35] Un des plus excellens moyens, et peut-être le seul qui existe
aujourd’hui, d’assurer aux jeunes gens une éducation qui réunit
tout à la fois l’esprit de la religion et les talens les plus éminens
serait de rétablie les jesuites dans la Belgique.—Memor. art. 8.
[36] This singular manifesto will be found in the appendix at the
end of these volumes.
[37] Jurer d’observer et de maintenir une loi qui suppose (!) que
l’église catholique est soumise aux lois d’état, c’est manifestaient
s’exposer a coopérer à l’asservissement de l’église.—Jugement
doctrinal, (Art. 193, see appendix).
[38] Page 193.
[39] The list of candidates suggested for the throne of Belgium in
1831, contains some names which are rather extraordinary, such
as Colonel Murat, La Fayette, Colonel Fabvier the Philhellene,
Sebastiani, Châteaubriand, Prince Carignan of Piedmont, M.
Rogier, Count de Merode, the present King of Greece, Prince John
of Saxony, the Duke of Leuchtenberg, son to Eugene Beauharnais,
Louis Philippe, and the Duke de Nemours, who was actually
chosen, but declined the honour.
[40] La Belgique, No. 1, p. 13, 16, 20, 23, 24, 27; and No. 2, p.
49.
[41] White, vol. i. p. 23.

Corrections

The word “controul” was changed to “control” throughout the text.

The first line indicates the original, the second the correction.
p. 39

the sign-board of the “Diaman-zetter,”

the sign-board of the “Diamant-zetter,”

p. 91
 it was ever dragged to to the field
it was ever dragged to the field

p. 115

lying immediatetely in front

lying immediately in front

p. 153

would get over their associaton

would get over their association

p. 160

that the goverment reduced the term

that the government reduced the term

p. 176

fearful of the slighest speculation

fearful of the slightest speculation

p. 252

in the nineteenth centurry

in the nineteenth century

p. 261

at no measure, how-ver
at no measure, however

p. 268

the consciencious, but inefficient opponents

the conscientious, but inefficient opponents

p. 277

were jeopardied by the jealous rivalry

were jeopardised by the jealous rivalry

Errata
“Hans Hemling” should read “Hans Memling”.
“Audeghem” should read “Auderghem”.
The errata have been applied to this etext.
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