CE0021

MODULE #2.1
CONTINUITY PRINCIPLE

• CONTINUITY PRINCIPLE
Types of Flow
1D & 3D CONTROL VOLUME

1D CONTROL VOLUME

3D CONTROL VOLUME

©2017 Google Image

BOUNDARY LAYER AND NO-SLIP
CONDITIONS

Boundary layer is the layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a

bounding surface where the effects of viscosity are significant.
All fluids possess viscosity which reduces the relative velocity (of the
fluid with respect to the wall) to zero at a solid boundary. This is known
as no-slip condition. ©2017 Google Image
CONTINUM HYPOTHESIS

“Fluids are composed of molecules that collide with one

another and solid objects. The continuum assumption
however, consider fluids to be continuous.” ©2017 Google Image
FLUID FLOWS ASSUMPTIONS

Lagranian Fluid Flow Eulerian Fluid Flow

“A way of looking at fluid
motion where the observer “a way of looking at fluid
follows an individual fluid motion that focuses on specific
parcel as it moves through space locations in the space through
and time. Plotting the position of which the fluid flows as time
an individual parcel through time passes. This can be visualized
gives the path line of the parcel. by sitting on the bank of a river
This can be visualized as sitting and watching the water pass the
in a boat and drifting down a fixed location.”
river.”
 Streamlines, Streaklines and Pathlines

Streamlines, streaklines and pathlines are field lines resulting from this vector field
description of the flow.
•Streamlines are a family of curves that are instantaneously tangent to the velocity vector of
the flow. These show the direction a fluid element will travel in at any point in time.

•Streaklines are the locus of points of all the fluid particles that have passed continuously
through a particular spatial point in the past. Dye steadily injected into the fluid at a fixed
point extends along a streakline.

•Pathlines are the trajectories that individual fluid particles follow. These can be thought of as
"recording" the path of a fluid element in the flow over a certain period. The direction the
path takes will be determined by the streamlines of the fluid at each moment in time.
 Streamlines, Streaklines and
Pathlines

Visualization of the three

vector lines in flow field.
(Note the figure above is
better viewed in power point
presentation.

©2017 Google Image

Hydraulics Engineering
Fluid Flow Classification

Steady State Flow Unsteady State Flow

“Steady flow means steady with respect to time.
“In unsteady flow the flow changes
Thus the flow at every point remains constant with
with time.”
respect to time.”

Uniform Flow Non-uniform Flow (Varied)

“The flow is defined as uniform flow when in the flow field
“When the velocity and other hydrodynamic
the velocity and other hydrodynamic parameters do not
parameters changes from one point to
change from point to point at any instant of time.”
another the flow is defined as non-uniform.”

Hydraulics Engineering
Fluid Flow Classification

Hydraulics Engineering
Fluid Flow Classification

Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow

▪Involves almost parallel layer of •It is describe to chaotic and uncertain flow
streamlines. regime.
▪Nearly parabolic velocity profile. •Unstable velocity profile, it follows
▪Commonly observe to high Logarithmic function.
viscous fluid with low velocity. •More on high velocity and low viscous fluid.
▪Re < 2000 •Re > 4000

©2017 Google Image

Hydraulics Engineering
 Velocity Profile

Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow

©2017 Google Image

Hydraulics Engineering
 The figure above shows an example of laminar flow and
turbulent flow.
©2017 Google Image

Hydraulics Engineering
 Reynolds Number, Re

Where: R – Reynolds Number; d – diameter of pipe or hydraulic

depth of open channel; p – fluid’s density; u – absolute
viscosity; v – kinematic viscosity

Hydraulics Engineering
 Flow Rate
➢ Flow rate is the quantity
of fluid flowing in a system
per unit time.
 Flow Rate
Q. = volume flow rate, 3
m /s
m = mass flow rate, kg/s
.
w = weight flow rate, N/s
Volume Flow Rate, Q
➢ also referred to as discharge

discharge: Where:
Q – discharge, m3/s
Q = av a – area of conduit, m2
v – velocity of flow, m3/s
Volume Flow Rate, Q
➢ May also be expressed by the volumetric
method
Where:
discharge: Q – discharge, m3/s
Q = vol/t vol – volume of flow, m3
t – elapsed time to
accumulate the
volume, sec
Volume Flow Rate, Q
➢ other units are in:
- lit/sec
- gal/sec
- gpm (gallons per minute)
 .
Mass Flow Rate, m

mass flow rate: Where:

. .
m – mass flow rate, kg/s
m = ρQ ρ – density of fluid, kg/m3
Q – discharge in m3/s
 .
Weight Flow Rate, w

Where:
. .
w – weight flow rate, N/s
γ – unit weight of fluid, N/m3
Q – discharge in m3/s
Conversions
Volume: Unit Weight:
1 m3 = 1000 Liters Water: 1000 kg/m3
1 gallon = 3.785 Liters 62.4 lb/ft3
9810 N/m3
9.81 kN/m3
Fluid Flow
➢ To better understand
fluid flow, simplifying
assumptions are made.
 st
1 Assumption
➢ We assume that the fluid is
IDEAL.
➢ An ideal fluid has no viscosity.
➢ The flow of an ideal fluid is
called inviscid (not viscous).
 nd
2 Assumption
➢ We assume an incompressible
flow.
➢ Density of the fluid does not
change significantly throughout
the system.
 nd
2 Assumption
➢ Note that this assumption
is excellent for liquids but
may not be the same for
gases.
CONTINUITY PRINCIPLE

“Generally, closed conduit flow

is characterized by a flow of
fluid in a closed conduit having
no free surface, thus the fluid
completely fills the conduit.”
CONTINUITY PRINCIPLE

There are three governing equations in a closed conduit

flow namely:
• Continuity Equation
Law of Conservation of Mass
• Bernoulli-Energy Equation
Law of Conservation of Energy and Bernoulli’s Principle
• Momentum Equation
Law of Conservation of Momentum and Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion
 Law of
Conservation
of Mass
 Continuity Equation
➢ states that , for steady flow, the
rate at which mass enters a
control volume equals the rate
at which mass leaves this same
control volume.
Continuity Equation
Control Volume

a2
Q2
a1 ❷ v2
Q1
v1 ❶

Figure 1
 Continuity Equation
➢ Or, by the law of conservation
of mass, what goes in at point 1
goes out at point 2.
Continuity Equation

Integral Form

Differential Form
Continuity Equation
Partial Differential Equation Form
𝑑𝑚
=0
𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = න 𝑑𝑚 = න 𝜌𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 − 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝜕
𝜌𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 + 𝜌𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥
𝜌𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕𝜌
𝜌𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 − 𝜌𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 + 𝜌𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑡
𝜌𝑣𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑y
𝜕
𝜌𝑣𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝜌𝑣𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑧
Continuity Equation
3D, Unsteady and Compressible Flow
𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
=− 𝜌𝑣𝑥 + 𝜌𝑣𝑦 + 𝜌𝑣
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝑧

3D, Steady and Compressible Flow

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝜌𝑣 + 𝜌𝑣 + 𝜌𝑣 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝑧
3D, Steady and Incompressible Flow
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑣𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦 + 𝑣 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝑧

1D, Steady and Incompressible Flow

𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝑄 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Continuity Equation

By continuity:
Q1 = Q2
a1v1 = a2v2
 Steady Flow
➢ Occurs when the quantity of
fluid flowing past any section in
a given amount of time is
constant
 Sample Problem 1
Water enters a pump through a 150-mm diameter intake
pipe and leaves through a 200-mm diameter discharge pipe.
If the average velocity in the intake pipeline is 1 m/s,
calculate the average velocity in the discharges pipeline.
What is the flowrate through the pump.
Solution: In the intake pipeline, V1 = 1 m/s, D1 = 0.15 m and
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐴1 = 𝐷1 = (0.15)2 = 0.0177 m2
4 4
In the discharge pipeline, D2 = 0.20 m and
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐴2 = 𝐷2 = (0.20)2 = 0.0314 m2
4 4
According to the continuity equation,

𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝑉2 𝐴2

Therefore,

𝐴1 0.0177
𝑉2 = 𝑉1 = 1 = 0.56 m/s
𝐴2 0.0314

The flowrate, Q, is given by

𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 0.0177 1 = 0.0177 m3 /s

The average velocity in the discharge pipeline is 0.56 m/s, and the flowrate through
the pump is 0.0177 𝒎𝟑 /𝐬
Sample Problem 2
In Figure 1, the inside diameters of the pipe at
sections 1 and 2 are 50mm and 100mm,
respectively. Water with a unit weight of 9.59
kN/m3 is flowing with an average velocity of 8
m/s at section 1. Find:
(c) Mass Flow Rate
(a) Volume Flow Rate
(d) Velocity of flow at
(b)Weight Flow Rate
Section 2
 Control Volume

a2
Q2
a1 ❷ v2
Q1
v1 ❶

Figure 1
Sample Problem 3
Two pipes of diameter 175mm and 225mm
converge into a 350mm diameter pipe. If the
velocity at the smallest pipe is 1.6 times the
velocity of the biggest pipe, find:
(a) Total flow rate in the system in gal/sec if the velocity at
the 225 mm diameter pipe is 4m/s
(b)Velocity at the smallest pipe
Sample Problem 4
Water enters the mixing device shown at 150 L/s through pipe A,
while oil with specific gravity of 0.8 is forced in at 30 L/s through
pipe B. If the liquids are incompressible and form a
homogeneous mixture of oil globules in water
(a)Find the average velocity of flow
at pipe C if the diameter is 30cm
(b)Find the density of the mixture at
pipe C
 MODULE #2.2
BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE

• CONTINUITY PRINCIPLE
 Law of
Conservation
of Energy
 Conservation of Energy
➢ states that the total energy
possessed by a given mass of fluid
as it flows through a system
remains constant unless energy is
added or removed from the fluid.
 Conservation of Energy
➢ The total energy possessed by a
given mass of fluid can be
considered to consist of potential,
kinetic and flow (pressure) energy.
Potential Energy, PE
➢ The amount of work needed
m
to lift a particle of mass “m” z
to an elevation “z”.
➢ PE = mgz (N-m)
Reference datum
 Kinetic Energy, KE
➢ The energy possessed by a particle of
mass “m” moving at a speed of “v”.
1 2 v
➢ KE = mv
2
m
 Flow Energy or Pressure Energy, FE
➢ Is the work done by the pressure force
in moving the fluid element through
the system.
Pw Pmg
➢ FE = =
γ γ
➢ Consider the pipe with the fluid
completely static.
P2
❷
P1
❶
z2
z1
Reference datum
Figure 2
➢ The difference in pressure between
the two points is given by:
P1 – P2 = ρg (z2 – z1)
P1 – P2 = ρg (z)

similar to mgz or
Potential Energy
➢ P1 – P2 has the dimensions of
potential energy per unit volume
➢ Set the fluid in the pipe in motion
v2
P2
v1 ❷
P1
❶
z2
z1
Reference datum
Figure 3
➢ We can observe that the total energy
per unit volume at any point along the
pipe is given by:
KE PE
+ + Pressure
volume volume
➢ By the law of conservation of energy,
the energy anywhere along the pipe
must be constant.
1
mv 2 mgz
2 +
volume volume
+ Pressure = C Bernoulli’s
or Equation
1 2
ρv + ρgz + Pressure = C
2
Bernoulli’s Equation
➢ Bernoulli’s Equation may be rewritten
as the Total Flow Energy, E
1w 2 wP
v + wz + = E (Joules)
2g γ
Bernoulli’s Equation
➢ Bernoulli’s Equation may also be
expressed as energy per Newton
weight or head.
v 2 P
+ z + = E (meters)
2g γ
Bernoulli’s Equation
v2 velocity
2g head (m)
Note:
z elevation (m) Pressure must be
gage pressure.
P pressure
γ head (m)
Bernoulli’s Equation
➢ Consider Figure 3, if energy remains
constant then;
E1 = E2
2
v1 P1 v22 P2 Ideal
+ z1 + = + z2 +
2g γ 2g γ Condition
Bernoulli’s Equation
➢ Flow is said to be under ideal
condition if there is no head loss.
➢ Head loss is associated with the
energy lost in fluid flow as caused by
friction, change in conduit size etc.
Bernoulli’s Equation
➢ When head loss is considered, the
Bernoulli’s equation becomes;
E1 - HL = E2
v12 P1 v22 P2
+ z1 + − HL = + z2 +
2g γ 2g γ
where:
HL – head loss (m)
Head Loss
 Head Loss
Major Loss: Frictional Energy Head Loss
“Major energy head loss is the
measure of the reduction in the
total head of the liquid as it moves
through a system. Head loss is
unavoidable and is present because
of the friction between the fluid
and the walls of the pipe and is also
between adjacent fluid particles as
they flow along the pipe. This is
unavoidable in real fluids.”
Head Loss
Head Loss
Head Loss
Head Loss
Head Loss
FRICTION FACTOR, f
Later work of Prandtl (1904) and Nikuradse (1933) with three zones of
turbulent flows:
• Smooth Turbulent Zone

• Transitional Turbulent Zone

• Rough Turbulent Zone Karman-Prandtl Equations

Nikuradse experiment is based on the original work of Stanton (1914),

refer to the figure in the next slide. While Colebrook and White (1939)
proposed a complete smooth-rough turbulent model.

With the diagram presented

by Moody (1944)
Head Loss
Head Loss
Head Loss
Hazen-Williams Equation
𝑉 = 𝑘𝐶𝑅0.63 𝑆 0.54
• Empirical formula with better fit data
• Introduced the roughness coefficient, C
• Improved version of Chezy equation

Where, hf – frictional energy head loss, V – mean velocity, D – diameter

of pipe, L – length of pipe, Q – Discharge, and k – 0.849 for S.I. and
1.318 for Imperial (US customary unit).

10.67𝐿𝑄1.852 4.52𝐿𝑄1.852
S.I. ℎ𝑓 = 1.852 4.8704 𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑓 = 1.852 4.8704 Imperial
𝐶 𝐷 𝐶 𝐷
Hazen-Williams
Coefficients

Relationship of Hazen-Williams
Coefficients to Colebrook-White
Friction Factors

©2018 IRRICAD; https://www.semanticscholar.org/

Head Loss
Head Loss
Head Loss
 Direction of Flow

➢ Fluid flows from a point of higher

energy to a point of lower energy.
Bernoulli’s Equation
➢ No Head Loss (Ideal Condition)
E1 = E2
v12 P1 v22 P2
+ z1 + = + z2 +
2g γ 2g γ
➢ With Head Loss
E1 - HL = E2
v12 P1 v22 P2
+ z1 + − HL = + z2 +
2g γ 2g γ
 Sample Problem 1
Water is flowing in an open channel at a
depth of 2m and a velocity of 3 m/s. It
flows down a chute into another channel
where the depth is 1 m & the velocity is 10
m/s. Neglecting friction, determine the
difference in elevation of the channel
floors.
 Sample Problem 2
2
A 5o mm diameter siphon is
2m
drawing oil (SG=0.82) from a
reservoir, as shown. If the 1
head loss from point 1 to
point 2 is 1.50m and from 5m
point 2 to 3 is 2.40m, find
the discharge of oil from the 3
siphon and the oil pressure
at point 2.
Sample Problem 3
Sample Problem 3
Sample Problem 4
Sample Problem 4
Sample Problem 5
Sample Problem 6
Pumps and
Turbines
Pumps
➢ Used to increase the energy head in a given
system.
➢ The energy provided by the pump is usually
referred to as head added.
Pumps
➢ Observe that Pt.
2 is higher than
2
Pt. 1.
z ➢ The energy or
head at Pt. 1 may
1
not be enough for
the fluid to reach
pt.2
Pumps
➢ To help push the
2
fluid to pt. 2,
z additional energy
P or head is
1
required.
➢ Pump may be
added.
 Pumps
➢ The energy equation between points 1 and 2
assuming there is head loss becomes:
E1 – HL +HA = E2
v12 P1 v22 P2
+ z1 + − HL + HA = + z2 +
2g γ 2g γ
Turbines
➢ Used to extract or harness energy from a
given system.
➢ Also known as motor.
➢ The energy extracted by the turbine is
usually referred to as head extracted.
Turbines
➢ Observe that Pt.
1 1 is higher than
Pt. 2.
z ➢ Because of
gravity, the fluid
naturally flows
from Pt. 1.
2
Turbines
➢ Energy may be
1
extracted by
using a turbine.
z
T

2
Turbines
➢ The energy equation between points 1 and 2
assuming there is head loss becomes:
E1 – HL – HE = E2
v12 P1 v22 P2
+ z1 + − HL−HE = + z2 +
2g γ 2g γ
Power and
Efficiency
 Power
➢ The rate at which work is done.
P = QγE (Joule/sec)
where:
Q – discharge, m3/s
γ – Unit Weight (kN/m3)
E – Total Energy head (m)
 Power
➢ For Example, given the pipe:
➢ The Power at pt. 1 is:
P1 = Q1γE1
where:
v𝟏2 P1
E1= + z1 +
2g γ
Power
Note:
1 Nm/s = 1 Watt
1 hp = 746 Watts
1 hp = 550- ft-lb/s
Power
Output Power of Pump
Output Power of Pump:
P = QγHA

Input Power of Turbine:

P = QγHE
Efficiency
➢ Or mechanical efficiency of pump (or turbine) is
the ratio of the power delivered by the pump (or
turbine) to the power supplied to the pump (or
turbine).
output
ŋ= x100%
input
 Sample Problem 7
Water enters a motor through a 600 mm diameter pipe
under a pressure of 14 kPa. It leaves through a 900mm
diameter exhaust pipe with a pressure of 4 kPa. A
vertical distance of 2.5m separates the centers of the
two pipes. Compute the power supplied to the motor.
Q = 500 li/s
T
2.5m
 Sample Problem 8
Water is flowing at a rate of 115 L/min through the fluid
motor shown. The pressure at A is 700 kPa and the
pressure at B is 125 kPa. It is estimated that the energy
loss in the tubing is 4.0 N.m/N of water flowing. (a)
Calculate the power delivered to the turbine by the
water. (b) if the mechanical efficiency of the motor is 85
percent, calculate the power output.
Sample Problem 8
21 mm
dia.

74.4 mm
dia.
 Sample Problem 9
The pump shown draws water from reservoir A at
elevation 10m and lifts it to reservoir B at elevation 60m.
The loss of head from A to 1 is two times the velocity
head in the 200mm diameter pipe and the head loss from
2 to B is ten times the velocity head in the 150 mm
diameter pipe. Determine the rated horsepower of the
pump and the pressure heads at 1 & 2 in meters when
the discharge is 0.03 m3/s.
Sample Problem 9
B El. 60m

El. 10m A Q2
500m – 200mm
1
P 2
El. 0m

Q1
Graphical Interpretation
of Bernoulli’s Equation
Graphical Interpretation

v12 HL
2g v22
2g
P1 P2
γ γ
E1 E2
❷
z2
z1 ❶
*constant
Datum diameter
Graphical Interpretation

Energy and Hydraulic Grade Lines

• This represent the ideal energy grade line (EGL) and
©2012 Google Image hydraulic grade line (HGL) in a closed conduit flow.
Bernoulli’s Equation
Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)
➢ HGL is the level water would rise to in a small, vertical
tube connected to the pipe.
➢ is the sum of the elevation and pressure head.
➢ also known as pressure gradient.

piezometer
Energy Grade Line (EGL)
➢ graphical representation of the total flow energy.
➢ always greater by a value of the velocity head than
the HGL
Properties of EGL and HGL
➢ HGL and EGL slope downward in the direction of the
flow
➢ EGL may only rise with the presence of a pump
➢ The drop in the EGL is the head loss between two
points.
➢ Wihout head loss, the EGL is horizontal.
 Sample Problem 10
A pipe line with a pump leads to a nozzle as shown. Find
the flow rate when the pump develops a 24.4m head.
Assume HL in the 152mm pipe to be 5 times its velocity
head while the head loss in the 102mm pipe to be 12
times its velocity head. (a) compute for the flow rate (b)
sketch the energy grade line & the hydraulic grade line
(c) find the pressure at the suction side.
Sample Problem 10