NCE, Hassan Prepared by: Dr. K.V. Yatish, Dept.

of Chemistry

Module 2
Materials for Memory and Display Systems
Memory devices
A memory device is a piece of hardware used to store the data. Most electronic devices such
as computers, laptops, and mobile phones have a storage device that stores data.

Classification of Electronic Memory Devices

1. Transistor-Type electronic memory:
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electrical signals and power.
A computer memory chip consists of billions of transistors, each transistor works as a switch,
which can be switched ON or OFF.

2. Capacitor Type electronic memory:

A capacitor is a two-terminal electrical device that can store energy in the form of an electric
charge. It consists of two electrical conductors/metal plates that are separated by a distance.

3. Resistor Type electronic memory:

Resistor Type electronic memory/Resistive random access memory (RRAM) is based on the
change in the electrical resistivity of materials in response to an applied voltage.

4. Charge transfer type electronic memory:

This is based on the charge transfer effects of a charge transfer complex. A charge transfer
complex also called as the electron donor acceptor complex.

Types of Organic Memory Devices

Organic memory devices are classified into three broad categories:
(i) Resistive switch and „write once, read many times‟ (WORM) devices
(ii) Molecular memory devices, and
(iii) Polymer memory devices (PMDs)

Molecular memory devices: When organic molecular material used to store the data.
Organic electronic memory devices based on organic molecules including naphthalene,
anthracene, tetracene, pentacene.

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NCE, Hassan Prepared by: Dr. K.V. Yatish, Dept.of Chemistry

Organic Semiconductors
 Organic semiconductors are solids composed of pi-bonded molecules or polymers
composed of hydrocarbons and heteroatoms such as nitrogen, sulphur, and oxygen.
 They can be found as molecular crystals or as amorphous thin films.
 Organic semiconductors include organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), organic solar
cells (OSCs), and organic field-effect transistors (OFETs).
Organic semiconductors can be divided into:
1. p-type (positive charge or hole as the major carrier)
2. n-type (negative charge or electron as the major carrier)
3. Ambipolar organic semiconductors (both electrons and holes are charge carriers)

(i) p-type semiconductor (Pentacene):

An Organic molecule with π conjugated system that possesses holes as major charge carriers
is called as p-type semiconductor.
Example: Pentacene

Pentacene (C22H14) is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon consisting of five linearly-fused

benzene (C6H6) rings. This highly conjugated compound is an organic semiconductor. The
compound generates excitons upon absorption of ultra-violet or visible light; which makes it
very sensitive to oxidation.
Pentacene has found applications in the area of organic thin film transistors (OTFTs) for use
in electronics, including light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and photovoltaic cell.

(ii) n-type semiconductor (Perfluoropentacene)

Example: perfluoropentacene

Perfluoropentacene (PFP) (C22F14) is an n-type organic semiconductor, which is made by

fluorination of the p-type semiconductor pentacene. Strong electron withdrawing nature of
fluorine atoms makes this molecule into n-type semiconductor. It has a bluish-black color,
and is used for molecular thin-film devices like OLEDs or OFETs.
Polymeric Material for Organic Memory Devices (PMDs):
PMDs consist of a layer of organic material sandwiched between a cross-point array of top
and bottom electrodes. However, in this structure, the organic layer consists of an admixture

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NCE, Hassan Prepared by: Dr. K.V. Yatish, Dept.of Chemistry

of deliberately introduced molecules and/or nanoparticles in an organic polymer matrix, as

illustrated in the figure. Deposition of the organic layer is usually done by the spin-coating
method (or by dip-coating), with all the required constituent materials being dissolved in a
solvent, which is then spun onto the substrate. As the solvent evaporates, a thin film of
material in the region of tens to hundreds of nanometres thick is deposited on the bottom
layer of electrodes. Top electrodes are then deposited as the final step. The conductivity of
the organic layer is then changed by applying a voltage across the memory cell, allowing a bit
of data to be stored.

Fig. Polymeric material for Organic Memory Device

Polyimides are one of the most commonly used polymeric materials for organic electrical
memory applications. In polyimides phthalimide acts as the electron acceptor, and triphenyl
amine acts as electron donor.

Display systems
Photoactive and Electroactive Materials
Organic semiconductors used in electronic and optoelectronic devices are called as electro
active and photoactive materials.
Photoactive materials are those that can absorb light and convert it into an electrical signal.
These materials are used in photo sensors and photovoltaic cells, which are commonly found
in solar panels. When light falls on a photoactive material, it releases electrons, which
generate an electric current. In display technology, photoactive materials are used in LCD
(Liquid Crystal Display) panels. Ex: TiO2, ZnO, CdTe, GaAs

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NCE, Hassan Prepared by: Dr. K.V. Yatish, Dept.of Chemistry

Electroactive materials, on the other hand, are those that can change their physical
properties, such as shape, size, or refractive index, when exposed to an electric field. These
materials are used in electroluminescent displays, which are commonly found in watches,
calculators, and other portable electronic devices. Ex: Polyvinylidine, Conducting polymers,
Liquid crystal polymers

Working principle of display system

The working principle of display systems using these materials depends on their properties.
In LCD panels, photoactive materials are used to control the pixels by allowing or blocking
the light. A backlight is placed behind the LCD panel, which emits light that passes through a
polarizing filter. The photoactive material is placed in front of the polarizing filter, and the
orientation of the molecules of the material can be changed by applying an electric field. This
changes the amount of light that is allowed to pass through the material, thus controlling the
brightness of the pixel.
In electroluminescent displays, electroactive materials are used to emit light. An electric field
is applied to the electroactive material, causing it to emit light. The material is usually
sandwiched between two conductive layers, which act as electrodes. When a voltage is
applied between the electrodes, the electroactive material emits light, which is used to create
the image on the display.

Optoelectronic devices

 Optoelectronic device is a device that converts electrical energy into light and light
into electrical energy through semiconductors.
 Optoelectronic devices are primarily transducers i.e. they can convert one energy
form to another.
 They can also detect light and transform light signals to electrical signals for
processing by a computer.

Working principle:

Optoelectronic devices are special type of semiconductor devices that are able to convert
light energy to electrical energy or electrical energy to light energy. If the photon has an
energy larger than the energy a gap, the photon will be absorbed by the semiconductor,
exciting an electron from the valence band into the conduction band, where it is free to move.
A free hole is left behind in the valence band. When the excited electron is returning to
valence band, extra photon energy is emitted in the form of light.

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NCE, Hassan Prepared by: Dr. K.V. Yatish, Dept.of Chemistry

Important optoelectronic devices

 LED converts electrical energy into light energy. It is useful for low power bulbs.
 LASER diode converts electrical energy into light energy. It is useful as a high
intensity monochromatic light source
 Photodiode converts light energy into electrical energy. It finds applications in optical
communication systems and DC isolator circuits.
 Solar cell converts light energy into electrical energy. It finds applications in energy
production.

Nanomaterials (Silicon nanocrystals):

Definition: Nanomaterials can be defined as materials possessing, at minimum, one external
dimension measuring 1-100 nm.
 Silicon has many advantages over other semiconductor materials: low cost,
nontoxicity, practically unlimited availability, and decades of experience in
purification, growth and device fabrication.
 It is used for almost all modern electronic devices.
 Due to excellent fluorescence intensity, low toxicity, good biocompatibility and
stability, silicon nanocrystals (Si NCs) and Si NCs-based composites have attracted
extensive attention and have been widely applied in analytical detection, biomarkers,
photocatalysts, photodiodes, and solar cells.

Properties of silicon nanocrystals for optoelectronics applications:

• Photoluminescence property of silicon.
• Wider band gap energy of silicon nanoscrystals.
• They exhibit tuneable electronic structure.
• They exhibit higher light emission property.
• Quantum yield of more than 60% has been observed.

Applications:
 It has been widely used in different applications such as nanoelectronics,
optoelectronics, LEDs, cells of the photoelectrochemical, photocatalyst.
 Silicon nanocrystals and silicon nanocrystals based composites have attracted
extensive attention and have been widely applied in analytical detection, homakers,
photocatalysts, photodiodes and solar cells.

Organic Materials for Optoelectronic Devices

Light Absorbing Materials-polythiophenes (P3HT)

Polythiophenes polymerized thiophenes, a sulfur heterocycle. P3HT used in electronic
devices such as lightemitting diodes, water purification devices, hydrogen storage, and
biosensors.
Poly(3-hexylthiophene) commonly known as P3HT, is a popular low band gap polymer
donor with applications in organic photovoltaics, polymer solar cells, OLEDs and OFETs

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NCE, Hassan Prepared by: Dr. K.V. Yatish, Dept.of Chemistry

Properties
• P3HT is an important conducting polymer because of its excellent electrical
• Conductivity.
• It has a relatively low band gap energy (Egap).
• It is a semiconducting polymer with high stability.
• It has great capability as light absorbing material.
• It is a p-type semiconductor.
Applications:
• Used in organic PV devices such as solar cells.
• Used as an electrode in lithium batteries.
• Used in new memory devices.
• In smart windows.

Light Emitting Material [poly(9-vinylcarbazole) (PVK)]

Polyvinylcarbazole (PVK) is a temperature-resistant thermoplastic polymer produced by
radical polymerization from the monomer N-vinylcarbazole. It is a photoconductive polymer
and thus the basis for photorefractive polymers and organic light-emitting diodes.

Properties:
1. PVK can be used at temperatures of up to 160 - 170 °C and is therefore a
temperatureresistantthermoplastic.
2. The electrical conductivity changes depending on the illumination. For this reason, PVK is
classified as a semiconductor or photoconductor.
3. The polymer is extremely brittle, but the brittleness can be reduced by copolymerization
with a little isoprene.
4. It is a non-conjugated polymer, shows unique optical properties and hole transport
properties in application of organic electronics due to its hydrophobicity, large hole mobility,
solution processability and stability.

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NCE, Hassan Prepared by: Dr. K.V. Yatish, Dept.of Chemistry

Applications:
Due to its high price and special properties, the use of PVK is limited to special areas. They are used
in
1. OLEDs.
2. Insulation technology
3. Electrophotography (e.g. in copiers and laser printers)
4. Photovoltaic devices
5. LEDs
6. Organic solar cells.

Liquid crystal
Liquid crystal is a state of matter whose properties are between those of conventional liquids
and those of solid crystals. For example, a liquid crystal may flow like a liquid, but its
molecules may be oriented in a crystal-like way.

Figure: Change of states with temperatures in liquid crystals

Classification of liquid crystals

1. Thermotropic liquid crystals: The class of compounds that exhibit liquid crystalline
behavior on variation of temperature is called thermotropic liquid crystals.

Fig. Change of states in thermotropic liquid crystals

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NCE, Hassan Prepared by: Dr. K.V. Yatish, Dept.of Chemistry

(i) Nematic: The nematic phase is the simplest form of liquid crystal and is the phase
in which the crystal molecules have no arranged positions and are free to move in
any way they like. Examples: p-Azoxy anisole (Transition point: 118-135 oC) p-
Azoxy phenetole (Transition point: 137-167 oC)
(ii) Cholesteric: These liquid crystals are formed from optically active compounds
having chiral centres. In this type, the molecules are arranged in the same manner
as those in the nematic type but its constituents are optically active. Examples:
Cholesteryl benzoate (Transition point: 145-179oC), Cholesteryl formate
(Transition point: 83-100oC)
(iii) Smectic: The smectic liquid crystals do not flow as normal liquids. These are the
soft substances, left at the bottom of a soap dish. Soap like substances from
smectic phase. Examples: Ethyl p-Azoxy benzoate (Transition point: 114-121oC)

2. Lyotropic liquid crystals:

• They occur in concentrated solutions of rod like molecules in a solvent like water.
Few compounds transform to a liquid crystal phase when mixed with a solvent.

• They have lyophilic and lyophobic ends.

• They are obtained by mixing the compound in a solvent and increasing the
concentrations of compound till liquid crystal phase is observed.

Examples: Soap-water mixture, Sodium laurate in water Phospholipids-water

3. Metallotropic liquid crystals

• Liquid crystals consist of anisotropic molecular units, and most are organic
molecules.

• The addition of long chain soap-like molecules leads to a series of new phases that
show a variety of liquid crystalline behavior both as a function of the inorganic-
organic composition ratio and of temperature.

Liquid Crystals in Display Systems

The most important application of liquid crystals (smectic and nematic) has been in the
electronic industry. They are used in all kinds of display devices including computer monitors
and laptop screens, digital watches, TVs, clocks, visors, and navigation systems. Each pixel
in a monitor is an assembly of liquid crystals controlled by its own electromagnetic field.

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NCE, Hassan Prepared by: Dr. K.V. Yatish, Dept.of Chemistry

The electro-optic effect of liquid crystals control the brightness or darkness of the light
emerging from its elements and this is used in information systems. Most of the displays in
LCD watches and calculators are composed of 7-segments. Each 7-segment section can
display one number. The combination of these sections displays the numbers from 0-9.

Fig. A seven segment display

Working principle of Liquid crystal display (LCD)

A numeric display consists of 7 segments for each digit. Each segment represents a liquid
crystal Light from the area of each of the 7 segments is controlled independently and is used
to create any one of the ten digits. The top and bottom plates of a display have electrode
patterns formed by etching a layer of indium tin oxide using standard photolithographic
process.

Fig. Working principle of LCD

A segment is turned ON by applying a voltage between the backplane and the matching
electrode on the top plate. For instance by supplying a voltage of around 3 V between the

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NCE, Hassan Prepared by: Dr. K.V. Yatish, Dept.of Chemistry

back plane and the electrode b on the top plate, segment b is switched ON. Light emits from
the cell, giving it a dazzling/bright appearance when there is no electric field (below a
threshold value). The cell appears dark when an electric field is applied (around 2-5 V).

Properties Applications of Liquid Crystal Displays:

• Thin and Lightweight: LCDs are typically thin and lightweight, making them
suitable for portable devices and flat-panel displays.

• Low Power Consumption: LCDs consume relatively low power, especially when
displaying static images. This property makes them energy-efficient and ideal for
battery-operated devices.

• Sharp Image Quality: LCDs can produce sharp and high-resolution images, making
them suitable for applications where image clarity is essential, such as text and
graphics on computer screens.

• Wide Range of Sizes: LCDs are available in a wide range of screen sizes, from small
displays on watches and smartphones to large-screen TVs and monitors.

• Color Accuracy: LCDs can display a wide range of colors with good accuracy when
calibrated correctly. This property is important for applications like image editing and
graphic design.

• Response Time: LCDs have a fast response time, which is important for reducing
motion blur in fast-paced video content and gaming.

• Variable Brightness: LCDs can be easily adjusted for brightness, allowing users to
adapt the display to different lighting conditions and conserve power when necessary.

Applications of Liquid Crystals Display

• Computer Monitors and Laptops:

• Television Screens
• Smartphones and Tablets:
• Digital Cameras
• ATMs and Point-of-Sale Terminals:
• Gaming Monitors
• Wearable Devices

ORGANIC LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES (OLEDS)

 OLEDs are organic electroluminescent LEDs, which means that their key building
blocks are organic (i.e., carbon-based) materials.
 An OLED is a solid-state device consisting of a thin, organic compound that emits
light when electricity is applied by adjacent electrodes.

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NCE, Hassan Prepared by: Dr. K.V. Yatish, Dept.of Chemistry

 OLED‟s are used to create digital displays in devices such as television screens,
computers, portable systems such as mobile phone.

Working principle:
OLEDs work in a similar way to conventional diodes and LEDs, but instead of using layers
of n-type and p-type semiconductors, they use organic molecules to produce their electrons
and holes.

Fig. Construction of OLEDs

An OLED consists of the following parts:

Substrate (clear plastic, glass, foil): The substrate supports the OLED.
Anode (transparent): The anode removes electrons (adds electron “holes”) when a current
flows through the device.
Organic layers: These layers are made of organic molecules or polymers:
i. Conducting layer: This layer is made of organic plastic molecules that transport “holes”
from the anode. One conducting polymer used in OLEDs is polyaniline.
ii. Emissive layer: This layer is made of organic plastic molecules. Polymer used in the
emissive layer is polyfluorene.
Cathode: The cathode injects electrons when a current flows through the device.
 To make an OLED light up, a voltage / potential difference is applied across the
anode and cathode.
 As the electricity starts to flow, the cathode receives electrons from the power source
and the anode loses them (or it “receives holes”).
 The added electrons are making the emissive layer negatively charged (similar to the
n-type layer in a junction diode), while the conductive layer is becoming positively
charged (similar to p-type material).
 Positive holes are much more mobile than negative electrons so they jump across the
boundary from the conductive layer to the emissive layer. When a hole (a lack of
electron) meets an electron, the two things cancel out and release a brief burst of
energy in the form of a particle of light—a photon.

Properties:
 Vivid colors.

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NCE, Hassan Prepared by: Dr. K.V. Yatish, Dept.of Chemistry

 Deepest black, highest contrast ratio.

 A wide viewing angle (180°).
 Low power consumption.
 Extremely thin form factor, flexible.
 Response time in microseconds for very crisp motion picture quality and 3D
applications.
 Simple structure.
 Low driving voltage.

Advantages:
 Ultra thin.
 Light.
 Flexible screen TVs seem likely to make their appearance in the next few years.
 Superior display quality.
 Exciting design.
 Better energy efficiency.

Applications:
 OLEDs are used to create digital displays in devices such as television screens,
computer monitors, and portable systems such as smartphones and handheld game
consoles.
 A major area of research is the development of white OLED devices for application in
solid-state lighting applications.
 OLEDs are employed in aviation for cockpit instrumentation, navigation display.
 OLEDs are employed for decorative and architectural lighting applications, allowing
for unique and customizable lighting designs.

Quantum Light Emitting Diodes (QLEDs)

Quantum dot light-emitting diodes (QLEDs) are a class of high-performance solution
processed electroluminescent (EL) devices highly attractive for next-generation display
applications.

Fig. Working Principle of QLED

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NCE, Hassan Prepared by: Dr. K.V. Yatish, Dept.of Chemistry

QLEDs generally consist of a multilayer sandwich structure: a QD-light emitting layer (QD-
EML), an electron transport layer (ETL), a hole transport layer (HTL), and positive and
negative electrodes. In QLED, a layer of cadmium-selenium quantum dots is sandwiched
between the layers of ETL and HTL organic materials. The spectrum of photon emission is
narrow now. An applied electric field causes electrons and holes to move in the quantum dot
and recombine, emitting photons.

Properties: QLEDS are

o Reliable.
o Energy efficient.
o Tuneable color solution for display and lighting applications that reduces
manufacturing costs, while employing ultra-thin, transparent or flexible materials.
o QLEDs are characterised by pure and saturated emission colors with narrow band
gap.
o Their emission length is easily tuned by changing the size of the quantum dots.
o QLED offers high color purity and durability combined with the efficiency, flexibility
and durability and low processing cost of OLEDs.
o QLED structure can be tuned over the entire visible length from 460-650 nm.
o Due to spectrally narrow, tuneable emission, and ease of processing, colloidal QDs
are attractive materials for LED technologies.
o Thin and light in weight.
o The switching speed (ON/OFF) is very fast.
o Brightness is about 50-100 times higher compared to CRT (Cathode ray tube) and
o LCD systems.

Applications:
QLEDs are reliable solutions for flat-panel TV screens, digital cameras, mobile
phones, and personal gaming equipment because QDs could assist large, flexible
displays and would not deteriorate as easily as OLEDs.
They are capable of presenting visibly more accurate and outstanding colors.
Biomedical sensing.
Nanophotonics.
Incandescent bulbs.

Questions
1. What are memory devices? Discuss the classification of memory devices with examples.
2. Explain the types of organic memory devices taking p-type and n-type semiconducting
materials.
3. What are the advantages of using organic molecules in memory devices than conventional
silicon semiconductor based memory devices?
4. What are photoactive and electroactive materials? Discuss their working principle.
5. Briefly discuss the organic molecules used in display systems.
6. What are nanomaterials? Give the properties and applications of nanosilicon.
7. Give any 4 properties and applications of P3HT

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NCE, Hassan Prepared by: Dr. K.V. Yatish, Dept.of Chemistry

8. What are liquid crystals? Discuss their classification with examples. Mention their
applications.
9. Explain the application of liquid crystals in display system.
10. What are QLEDs? Give their any 4 properties and applications.
11. What are OLEDs? Give their any 4 properties and applications.
12. What are optoelectronic devices? Discuss their working principle.
13. Discuss any 4 properties and applications of light emitting materials- PVK.
14. Discuss the application of polyimide polymeric materials for organic memory devices.

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