DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,

UNIT-2
AC FUNDAMENTALS

Generation of Alternating Voltages and Currents:

Alternating voltage may be generated:

1. By rotating coil in a magnetic field.

2. By rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil.

3. In each case, the value of the alternating voltage generated depends upon the number of turns
in the coil, the strength of the magnetic field and the speed at which the coil or magnetic field
rotates.

.
4. Fig: Generation of sinusoidal voltage.

Consider rectangular coil of N turns rotating in the anticlockwise direction, with an angular
velocity of ω radians per second in a uniform magnetic field as shown in figure. Time is
measured from the instant of coincidence of the plane of the coil with the x-axis. At this instant
maximum flux, ømax, links with the coil. As the coil rotates, the flux linking with it changes and
hence e.m.f is induced in it. Let the coil turn through an angle in time "t"seconds, and let it
assume the position as shown in figure.
When the coil is rotated, the maximum flux is acting vertically downwards. This flux can be
resolved into two components, each perpendicular to the other, namely:

1. Component max sin t, is parallel to the plane of the coil. This component does not induce
e.m.f. as it is parallel to the plane of the coil.
2. Component max cos t, is perpendicular to the plane of coil. This component induces
e.m.f. in the coil.
0
Flux linkages of coil at the instant (at ) = No of turns * flux= N max cos t

By Faraday‟s law of electromagnetic induction, instantaneous e.m.f. „e‟ induced in a coil at the
instant is given by

Fig:. Generated sinusoidal waveform

=N max ( sin t )

e= N max sin t volts (i)

From eqn. (i) e will be maximum (E m) , when the coil has rotated through 90 (as sin 90 = 1).

Thus Em = N max volts (ii)

Substituting the value of N max from equation (ii) in equation (i),

e = Em sin t (iii)

We know that = t

e = Em sin
 From the above expression the alternating e.m.f. induced in a coil is instantaneous and varies
according to the sine of the angle ( or t ).

As, = 2 f, where „f‟ is the frequency of rotation of the coil. Hence equation (iii) can be written
as e = Em sin 2 ft ------------------------------------- (iv)

If T = time period of the alternating voltage = 1/f, then eqn. (iv) becomes e = Em sin( (2 /T) t)

The alternating quantity varies according to the sine function of the time angle t, and if e.m.f.
induced is plotted versus time, a curve is obtained which is called sinusoidal e.m.f.

Important Definitions:

1. Alternating quantity: An alternating quantity is one which acts alternately in positive

and negative directions, whose magnitude undergoes a definite series of changes in
definite intervals of time and in which the sequence of changes while negative is identical
with the sequence of changes while positive.

2. Instantaneous value: The value of an alternating quantity at any instant is called

instantaneous value.„e and i‟ represent the instantaneous values of alternating voltage and
current respectively.

3. Cycle: A set of positive and negative half cycle (emf or current) is called one cycle.

4. Time period and frequency: The time taken in seconds by an alternating quantity to
complete one cycle is known as time period and is donated by T. The number of cycles
completed per second by an alternating quantity is known as frequency and is denoted by
„f‟. in hertz. The number of cycles per second = f.

Time Period = T = Time taken for one cycle = 1 / f or f = 1 / T

In India, the standard frequency for power supply is 50 Hz and in USA it is 60Hz.

5. Amplitude: The maximum value of positive or negative alternating quantity during one
complete cycle is called amplitude or peak value or maximum value. Em and Im
represent the amplitude of alternating voltage and current respectively.
6. Concept of leading and lagging: If the two quantities (V and I) do not reach their peak
at the same time then we can say that two quantities are having phase difference. The
quantity which reaches its peak early is called leading. Quantity which reaches its peak
later is called lagging. All the loads are either resistive or inductive in nature where
current is in phase or lagging.
 7. Root-Mean-Square (R.M.S) Value: The r.m.s. or effective value, of an alternating
current is defined as that steady current which when flowing through a given resistance
for a given time produces the same amount of heat as produced by the alternating current,
when flowing through the same resistance for the same time.

Irms = = 0.707Im

Hence, for a sinusoidal current,

R.M.S value of current, I = 0.707* maximum value of current.

Similarly, E = 0.707 Em

Average Value:

The arithmetical average of all the values of an alternating quantity over one cycle is called average value

Average value,

Eav = 0.637 Em

Similarly, for alternating current varying sinusoidally,

Iav = 0.637 Im

Average value of current = 0.637 * maximum value.

Form Factor and Crest or Peak or Amplitude Factor (Kf):

1. Form factor: The ratio of effective value (r.m.s value) to average value of an alternating
quantity (voltage or current) is called form factor.

Kf =RMS value/Average Value

Kf = 0.707Im/0.637Im

Kf =1.11

2. Crest or peak or amplitude factor (K a): It is defined as the ratio of the maximum value
to the r.m.s. value of an alternating quantity. Crest factor is important in the testing of
dielectric strength of insulating materials, this is because the breakdown of insulating
materials depends upon the maximum value of voltage.
 Kp =Im/0.707Im

Kp =1.414

(i)AC Circuit Containing Pure Resistance: When an alternating voltage is applied to circuit
containing pure resistance, alternating current will be flowing through the circuit.
 Fig:. Pure Resistance circuit.

Fig:. Current and voltage waveform

Consider an ac circuit with pure resistance „R‟ as shown in figure.

Let the applied voltage v = Vm sin( ) -------------- (1)

Due to this applied voltage, current I will flow through the circuit.

By ohm's law v = iR

Substituting the value of 'v' from equation (1) we get,

Vm sinθ = iR;

i= Vm sinθ/R ------------- (2)

Current I is maximum when sin 𝜃 = 1,

i.e., Im= Vm /R --------- (3)

Substituting (3) in (2) we get

i = Im sin𝜃 -------------- (4)

From Equation (1) and (4), it shows that I and V are in phase.

Power:

Instantaneous power is given by P = Vm sin Im sin i.e., VmIm sin2

(θ= ω t)

P= VmIm/2*(1-cos2ωt) , θ=0,90,180,270,360------ etc.

P= VmIm/2- (0)= Vm*Im/2=Vrms*Irms= VI

Thus instantaneous power consists of a constant part and a fluctuating part

of frequency doubles that of voltage.

The average value of over a complete cycle is zero.

or P = VI watts.

where, V = rms value of applied voltage and

I = rms value of current.

Fig: Power waveform of R circuit
ii) AC Circuit Containing Pure Inductance:

Fig:2.1.8(a) Pure inductance circuit Fig:2.1.8(b) Phasor diagram

Fig: Current & voltage waveform

From the figure it is clear that current lags behind the applied voltage by π/2
Inductive Reactance: = 2 fL, is known as inductive reactance in ohms and is denoted by X L
where L is in henry, f is in hertz.

Consider a purely inductive coil, back emf is produced due to the self-inductance of the coil.
This back emf opposes the change in the current at every instant. Because of the absence of
resistance, the applied voltage is equal to self-induced emf.

Let the applied voltage be v = Vm sin t, and the self-inductance of the coil = L Henry.

Self-induced e.m.f. in the coil,= - L

Since applied voltage at every instant is equal and opposite to the self-induced e.m.f., i.e. V= -eL

=-

or di = dt

Integrating both sides, we get

i= dt

or i= (-cos )+ A

Where A is a constant of integration which is found to be zero from initial conditions.

So, i= cos

Or i= sin

Current (I) will be maximum when sin = 1, hence, the value of maximum current,
Im= , and instantaneous current may be expressed as i = Im sin
 Fig: Power waveform

Instantaneous power,

The average value of power for complete cycle is zero. Hence, power absorbed in a pure
inductive circuit is zero.

Power Curve: The power curve for a pure inductive circuit is shown in figure. This indicates
that power absorbed in the circuit is zero (positive power = negative power). Power is positive
when both voltage and current are positive or negative if any one (v or i) is negative then power
becomes negative.
(iii) AC Circuit Containing Pure Capacitance:

Fig: Pure capacitance circuit with phasor diagram

Fig: Pure capacitance circuit.

When an alternating voltage is applied across the plates of a capacitor, the capacitor is charged in
one direction and then in the opposite direction as the voltage reverses.

Let alternating voltage represented by = 'V' volts be applied across a capacitor of capacitance C
Farad.
 Instantaneous charge, q = c = CVm sin

Capacitor current is equal to the rate of change of charge, or

i= (CVm sin )= CVm cos

or i= sin

The current is maximum when t = 0, Im =

Substituting = Im in the above expression for instantaneous current, we get

i = Im sin

Capacitive Reactance: in the expression Im = is known as capacitive reactance

and isdenoted by Xc. i.e., Xc =

If C is farads and " ‟ is in radians, then Xc will be in ohms.

If the applied voltage is given by = , then the

current is given by i = Im sin

This shows that the current in a pure capacitor leads its voltage by a quarter cycle as shown or
phase difference between its voltage and current is π / 2 with the current leading.

1/ c is known as capacitive reactance and is denoted by Xc

 Fig:. Power waveform

Power Curve: The power curve for a pure capacitive circuit is shown in figure. This indicates
that power absorbed in the circuit is zero (positive power = negative power). Power is positive
when both voltage and current are positive or negative. If any one (v or i) is negative then power
becomes negative.

R-L Series Circuit:

Fig:2.1.13(a). R-L series circuit Fig:2.1.13(b)Phasor Diagram of ‘L’

 Fig:2.1.13(c) Voltage and Impedance triangle

Let V = r.m.s. value of the applied voltage

I = r.m.s. value of the current

Voltage drop across R, VR = IR (in phase with I)

Voltage drop across L, VL = IXL (leading I by 900)
The applied voltage V is the vector sum of the two (Z.)

V= =

=I

I=

The term offers opposition to current flow and is called the impedance (Z) of the
circuit. It is measured in ohms.

I=

tan Ф =

Z = R +j XL
Where i=j=root of -1
The circuit current lags behind applied voltage by an angle .So, if applied voltage is expressed
as = t, the current is given by i = Im( t - ), where Im =Vm/Z
Power:

Fig: (a) Power waveform[R-L series]

Instantaneous power, P = vi = Vm sin t × Im sin( t - )

= Vm Im sin t .sin( t- )

= Vm Im [cos - cos(2 t- )]

Average power consumed, P = Vm Im cos

P= cos

P = V I cos

Where V and I are r.m.s. values of voltage and current

 Power Triangle :

Apparent Power: The product of rms. values of current and voltage, VI, is called the apparent
power and is measured in volt-amperes (VA) or in kilo-volt amperes (KVA).

S=VI

Real Power: The product of the applied voltage and the active component of the current is
known as real power. It is expressed in watts or kilo-watts (kW).

P= VI cosФ

Reactive Power: It is defined as product of the applied voltage and the reactive component of
the current. It is expressed in volt-ampere reactive (VAR) or kilo volt ampere (kVAR)

Q= VIsinФ

S = P +j Q
Where i=j=root of -1
 Series Circuit:

Consider an ac circuit containing resistance R ohms and capacitance C farads, as shown in the
figure

Fig:2.1.15. R-C series circuit

Fig:2.1.16(a) Voltage triangle Fig:2.1.16(b) Impedance triangle.

 Let V = r.m.s. value of voltage, I = r.m.s. value of current
Voltage drop across R, VR = IR

Voltage drop across C, VC = IXC

The capacitive resistance is negative, so VC is in the negative direction of Y axis, as shown

.
V=

V=

Or I=

Z = R -j Xc
Where i=j=root of -1

Power factor, cos = , I leads V by an angle, tanФ=

I=Im Sin (wt+φ)

Power:
Instantaneous power, P = vi = Vm sin t × Im sin( t + )

= Vm Im sin t .sin( t+ )

= Vm Im [cos - cos(2 t+ )]

Average power consumed, P = Vm Im cos

P= cos

P = V I cos

Where V and I are r.m.s. values of voltage and current

Fig: Power waveform[R-C series]
Series R-L-C circuit:

Fig:2.1.17. Series R-L-C circuit.

(a) (b)

Fig: Phasor diagram of R-L-C series circuit (a) XL>Xc condition

 Consider an a.c. series circuit containing resistance „R‟ ohms, Inductance „L‟ henries and
capacitance 'C‟ farads, as shown above.

Let V = r.m.s. value of applied voltage .I = r.m.s. value of current

Voltage drop across R, VR = IR

Voltage drop across L, VL = IXL
Voltage drop across C, VC = IXC
AD = AB AC

= AB BD (because BD = AC)

= VL Vc

= I(XL Xc)

OD, which represents the applied voltage V, is the vector sum of OA and AD.

OD = OA2 + AD2 or V = (IR)2 + (IXL IXc)2

= I R2 + (XL Xc)2

I = V/ R2 + (XL Xc)2 = V/Z.

The denominator R2 +(XL Xc) 2 is the impedance of the circuit.

Z2 = R2 + (XL Xc) 2 = R2 +X2

Phase angle is given by

tan =

Power factor,

cos =

Power = VI cos

If XC > XL , then the current leads and the +ve sign is used If
XL > XC, then the current lags and the –ve sign is used

Z = R + j (XL - XC)
 The value of the impedance is
Z=

The phase angle = tan-1

Z =Z tan-1

Z =Z tan-1

The three cases of RLC Series Circuit

 When XL > XC, the phase angle ϕ is positive. The circuit behaves as RL series
circuit in which the current lags behind the applied voltage and the power factor is
lagging.
 When XL < XC, the phase angle ϕ is negative, and the circuit acts as a series
RC circuit in which the current leads the voltage by 90 degrees.
 When XL = XC, the phase angle ϕ is zero, as a result, the circuit behaves like a
purely resistive circuit. In this type of circuit, the current and voltage are in phase
with each other. The value of the power factor is unity.

Drawing of the phasor diagram for a series RLC circuit energized by a sinusoidal
voltage showing the relative position of current, component voltage and applied
voltage for the following case

a) When XL > Xc
b) When XL < Xc
c) When XL = Xc.
RLC Circuit:

Consider a circuit in which R, L, and C are connected in series with each other
across ac supply as shown in fig.

The ac supply is given by,

V = Vm sin wt
The circuit draws a current I. Due to that different voltage drops are,
1) Voltage drop across Resistance R is VR = IR
2) Voltage drop across Inductance L is VL = IXL
3) Voltage drop across Capacitance C is Vc = IXc The characteristics of three
drops are,
1. VR is in phase with current I
 2. VL leads I by 900
3. Vc lags I by 900
According to krichoff’s laws

Steps to draw phasor diagram:

1. Take current I as reference
2. VR is in phase with current I

3. VL leads current by 900

4. Vc lags current by 900
5. obtain resultant of VL and Vc. Both VL and Vc are in phase opposition
(1800 out of phase)

6. Add that with VRby law of parallelogram to getsupply voltage.

The phasor diagram depends on the condition of magnitude of V L and Vc which

ultimately depends on values of XL and Xc.
Let us consider different cases:

Case(i): XL > Xc
When X L > Xc
Also VL > Vc (or) IXL > IXc
So, resultant of VL and Vc will directed towards VL i.e. leading current I. Hence I
lags V i.e. current I will lags the resultant of V L and Vc i.e. (VL - Vc). The circuit is said
to be inductive in nature.
From voltage triangle,
V = √ (VR2 + (V L– Vc) 2) = √ ((IR) 2 + (IX –L IXc) 2)
V = I √ (R2 + (XL – Xc) 2)
V = IZ
Z = √ (R2 + (XL - Xc) 2 )
If , V = Vm Sin wt ; i = Im Sin (wt - ф)
i.e I lags V by angle ф

Case(ii): XL < Xc
When XL < Xc
Also VL < Vc (or) IXL < IXc
Hence the resultant of VL and Vc will directed towards Vc i.e current is said to be
capacitive in nature Form voltage triangle

i.e I lags V by angle ф

Case(iii): XL = Xc
When XL = Xc
Also VL = Vc (or) IXL = IXc

So VL and Vc cancel each other and the resultant is zero. So V = VR in such a case, the
circuit is purely resistive in nature. (Resonance )

Impedance:
In general for RLC series circuit impedance is given by,
Z=R+jX
X = XL – Xc = Total reactance of the circuit

If XL > Xc ; X is positive & circuit is Inductive

If XL < Xc ; X is negative & circuit is Capacitive
If XL = Xc ; X =0 & circuit is purely Resistive
Tan ф = [(XL - Xc )∕R]
Cos ф = [R∕Z]
Z = √ (R2 + (XL - Xc ) 2)
Impedance triangle:
In both cases R = Z Cos ф

X = Z Sin ф

1. A voltage of 200 V is applied to a series circuit consisting of a resistor, an inductor and a

capacitor. The respective voltages across these components are 170, 150 and 100 V and the
current is 4 A. Find the power factor of the circuit.

Solution:

Current = 4A, VR = IR = 170, 4R = 170

 R = 42.5

VL = I XL = 150

XL = 150 / 4 = 37.5

VC = I XC = 100

XC = 25

Impedance,

Z= R2 + (XL – XC)2

= 42.52 + 12.52 = 44.3

Power Factor,

cos = R / Z

= 42.5 / 44.3 = 0.96(lagging)

2. Find the reading of the ammeter when the voltmeter across the 3-ohm resistor in the
circuitshown in figure below reads 45 V.

Solution:

I1 = 45 / 3 = 15 A., I1 = 15 00 A

The applied voltage is

V = 15∟ 00 x (3- j3) (V=IZ1)

 = 15∟ 00 x 4.24∟450

= 63.6∟450 V

I2 = V / Z2 = 63.6∟450 / (5 +j2)

= 63.6∟450 / 5.4∟21.80

= 11.77∟66.80 A

(converting polar to rectangular form)

= 4.64 – j10.8

I = I1 + I2 = (15 + j0) +(4.64 – j10.8) I = 19.64 – j10.8 (converting rectangular to polar form)

I=22.4∟-28.80

Hence, ammeter reads 22.4

 THREE PHASE ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

There are two types of system available in electric AC circuit, single phase and three phase
system. In single phase circuit, there will be only one phase, i.e the current will flow through
only one wire and there will be one return path called neutral line to complete the circuit.

A poly phase system is a combination of several single-phase voltages having the same
magnitude and frequency but displaced from one another by equal angle (electrical), which
depends on the number of phases and determined from the following relation:

Electrical displacement = 3600 electrical degree/ number of phases

There fore for three phase system = 360/3 = 1200

Three phase circuit is the polyphase system where three

phases are send together from the generator to the load. Each
phase are having a phase difference of 120°, i.e 120° angle
electrically. So from the total of 360°, three phases are equally
divided into 120° each. The power in three phase system is
continuous as all the three phases are involved in generating
the total power. The sinusoidal waves for 3 phase system is shown below
figure.

Fig :2.2.1. Wave forms of 3 phase voltages

The three phases can be used as single phase each. So if the load is single phase, then one phase
can be taken from the three phase circuit and the neutral can be used as ground to complete the
circuit.

Advantages of Three-Phase Systems:

The output of a three-phase machine is always greater than that of a single-phase machine
of the same size and less cost.
 For transmission and distribution of a power over a given distance, a three-phase
transmission line requires less copper than a single-phase line.
Three phase motors have uniform torque compared to 1-phase motors.
Single-phase motors are not self-starting. Three phase motors are self-starting.
Three phase generators work in parallel without difficulty.
In the case of three-phase star system, two different voltages can be obtained whereas in
the case of a single-phase system only one voltage can be obtained.
Overall performance of 3- phase motors is better compared to 1-phase motor.

Generation of three phase voltage:

Fig: 2.2.2 Generation of 3 phase voltage

Consider three electrical coils a1 a2, b1 b2 and c1 c2 as shown in the fig 2 mounted on the same
axis but displaced from each other by 120 electrical. Let the three coils be rotated in
anticlockwise direction in a magnetic field with an angular velocity of radians/sec, as shown.

When the coil a1 a2 is moved with the position AB shown in figure, the magnitude and direction
of the emf‟s induced in the various coils is as under;

a) E.M.F induced in coil a1 a2 is zero and is increasing in the positive direction. This is
indicated by ea1a2 wave in figure
ea1 a2 = Em . sin t = e r
b) The coil b1 b2 is 1200 electrically behind coil a1 a2.. The emf induced in this coil is
negative and is approaching maximum negative value. This is shown by the eb1 b2 wave
eb1 b2 = Em. sin [ t 2 /3] = e y
 c) The coil c1 c2 is 2400 electrically behind a1 a2 or 1200 electrically behind coil b1 b2. The
emf induced in this coil is positive and is decreasing. This is indicated by ec1 c2 wave
ec1 c2 = Em sin [ t 4 /3] = e b

If the three voltages are added vectorially , it can be observed that the sum of the three voltages at
any instant is zero.

That is e r + e y + e b = 0.

Important definitions related to three phase system.

Symmetrical system : a three phase system in which the three voltages are of same
magnitude and frequency and displaced from each other by 120 degree phase angle is
called as symmetrical system.
Phase sequence : The order in which the voltages in the phases reach their maximum
positive values is called the phase sequence. Three phases are usually represented by R-
Y-B and should be connected in this order called phase sequence. (Red, Yellow, Blue).
Three phase supply connections:
In single phase system, two wires are sufficient for transmitting voltage to the load that is
phase and neutral. But in case of three phase, two ends of each phase are available to
supply voltage to the load.
Using these connections two different three phase connections can be obtained which are
called as Star connection and Delta connection.

Star connection:

The star connection is formed by connecting starting ends of all the three windings
together. The common point is known as Neutral point. The remaining three ends are
brought out for connection to load. Star connected circuit is illustrated in the fig
 Delta connection:

The delta is formed by connecting one end of winding to starting end of other which
forms a closed loop.
The supply terminals are taken out from three junction points.
Delta connection always forms a closed loop. Delta connected circuit is illustrated in fig

Concept of Line and Phase values of Voltages and Currents.

The potential different between any two lines of supply is called line voltage and current
passing through any line is called line current. Line voltages are denoted as E L
Line current are denoted by I L .

The voltage across any branch of the three phase load is called phase voltage and the
current passing through any branch of the three phase load is called phase current.

Balanced Supply

A supply is said to be balanced if all three voltages are equal in magnitude and displaced by 120
degree. A three phase supply can be connected in two ways - Either in Delta connection or in
Star connection as shown in the figure 3.

Fig:2.2.3 Balanced supply

Balanced Load

A load is said to be balanced if the impedances in all three phases are equal in magnitude and
phase A three phase load can be connected in two ways – Either in Delta connection or in Star
connection as shown in the fig
 Fig:2.2.4 Balanced load

Star Connection: Relationship between line and phase values.

Fig:2.2.5 Star connected circuit and phasor

The common point N at which similar ends are connected is called the neutral point.

The voltage between any line and the neutral point is called phase voltage; while the voltage
between any two lines is called line voltage.

For example, the potential difference between outers R and Y or line voltage ERY, is the vector
difference of phase emf‟s ER and EY or vector sum of phase emf‟s ER and ( EY).

i.e., ERY = ER EY

As phase angle between vectors ER and ( EY) is 60 ,

Therefore, from vector diagram shown in figure.

ERY = ER2 + E Y2 + 2ER EY cos 60

Let ER = EY = EB = EP (phase voltage)

Then line voltage

ERY = EP2 + E P2 +(2 EP EP x 0.5)

= 3 EP

Similarly, potential difference between Y and B is

EYB = EY EB = 3 EP

In a balanced star system, ERY, EYB and EBR are equal in magnitude and are called line voltages.

EL = 3 EP

Since, in a star connected system, each line conductor is connected to a separate phase, the
current flowing through the lines and phases are the same.

i.e., Line current IL = Phase current IP

If the phase current has a phase difference of with the phase voltage.

Power output per phase = EPIP cos

Total power output,

P = 3EPIP cos
= 3(EL/ 3) IP cos
= 3 EL IL cos
 Mesh or Delta Connected System: Relationship between line and phase values.

Fig:2.2.6 Delta connected circuit and phasor

IR, IY and IB are line currents and IRB, IBY and IYR are phase currents .

Line current, IR = IYR IRB

IR = IYR2 + IRB2 +2 IYRIRB cos 60

For a balanced load, the phase current in each winding is equal and let it be IP

2
Line current, IR = I P+ I 2 P+2 IP IP x 0.5

= 3IP

Similarly, line current, IY = IBY IYR = 3 IP

and line current, IB = IRB IBY = 3 IP

In a delta network, there is only one phase between any pair of lines, so the potential difference
between the lines (line voltage) is equal to phase voltage.

EL = EP

Power output per phase = EP IP cos ,

 Where cos is the power factor of the load.

Total power output,

P = 3EP IP cos
= 3 EL(IL/ 3) cos
= 3 ELIL cos

The Power Triangle:

Fig:2.2.7 Power triangle

In the figure,

AB = √3 ELIL cos , represents the real power in watts or kW.

BC = √3 ELIL sin , represents the reactive power in VAR or kVAR.

AC = 3EI, represents the apparent power in VA or kVA.

i) (kVA)2 = (kW)2 + (kVAR)2

ii) Circuit power factor, cos = True power / Apparent power

iii) kVAR = kVA sin

= ( kW / cos ) x sin

= kW tan

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