Chapter 5:

Applying Newton’s
Laws

PHY 121, Fall 2021

 Weight Force
An object’s mass determines its resistance to
changes in motion (F=ma)
An object’s weight depends on the gravitation
field in which it resides

w = m * (acceleration due to gravity)

Near the earth’s surface, the acceleration
due to gravity, g = 9.8 m/s2

Near the moon’s surface, gmoon = 1.62 m/s2

In deep space, gspace ~ 0 (you “weigh” almost

nothing)
Our problems typically occur near the surface of
the earth, in which case w = mg
(with g = 9.8 m/s2)
 Normal Force
As we have seen, a normal force is
the force with which a surface
pushes back on an object

The normal force is always

perpendicular to the surface
Any force parallel to the surface
must be caused by friction
Just like static friction, the normal
force will exactly match the applied
force (perpendicular to the surface)
until the surface breaks
 Board Problem
A skier slides down a steep 27° slope. On a slope this steep,
friction is much smaller than the other forces at work
and can be ignored. What is the skier’s acceleration?
Step 1: Free-Body Diagram, Step 2: Choose x & y,
Step 3: Decompose into Fx & Fy, Step 4: Fnet = ma (in x & y),
Step 5: Solve equations
n X X 0
y Fx = max Fy = may
wx = ma n wy = 0 θ
x n = wy
wy
θ w

wx wx w sin ✓ mg sin ✓
a= = =
wy m m m
cos ✓ =
w 2 2
wx a = g sin ✓ = (9.81 m/s sin(27 ) = 4.45 m/s
sin ✓ =
w
 Friction Forces
When a surface exerts a normal force on an object, it also exerts a force of friction
Static friction occurs while an object is still at rest, and matches the applied force to keep the
object at rest
Eventually, static friction will no longer be able to match the applied force
! !
The maximum possible static friction force depends on the normal force: f s,max = µ s n|
|
μs is called the “coefficient of static friction”
Kinetic friction occurs while an object is in motion, and is (largely) independent of the motion
!
i.e. The kinetic friction force is independent of velocity & acceleration: f k = µk |!n|
μk is called the “coefficient of kinetic friction”
 Rolling Resistance
When a round object is rolling without slipping, there is
only static friction bet ween the object and the surface
Most of the opposing force that causes the object to
slow down is caused by:

Non-elastic deformation of the object at the

contact point with the surface

Any slipping bet ween the object and the surface

Very little opposing force is actually generated by

“friction”
However, the rolling resistance force does typically
depend on the normal force, so we can treat it the same
way as the friction forces

fr = µrn (where µr is called the “coefficient of rolling

friction)
 Friction Summary
Static friction, kinetic friction, and
rolling resistance all depend on the
normal force
Kinetic friction and rolling resistance
forces always oppose the direction of the
velocity
Force magnitude is the coefficient of
friction times the magnitude of the
normal force
Magnitude is independent of |v|
or |a|

For static friction, the magnitude always

matches the applied force
The maximum magnitude is the
coefficient of friction times the
magnitude of the normal force
 How to Solve Force Problems
Step 1: Draw a force (free-body) diagram for all relevant objects in the
problem

Step 2: Choose a coordinate system (i.e. x- and y-axes) for each object

Note: It usually easiest to align 1 coordinate (e.g the x-axis) with the
expected direction of the acceleration

Step 3: Decompose all of the forces into their x- and y- components

Step 4: Apply Newton’s second law to all relevant objects in the problem:
X X

{
Object 1: Fx,1 = m1 ax Fy,1 = m1 ay
! ! X X
F net = m a Object 2: Fx,2 = m2 ax Fy,2 = m2 ay
(for all objects) .. .. ..
. . .
Step 5: Solve for the requested variable(s)
 Force (Free-Body) Diagrams
(Recap of what we learned
last lecture)

Imagine a car being towed by

a rope pulled at an angle 20°
from the horizontal

What are the forces on

the car?

How do we draw a free-body

diagram for this problem?
(i.e. Step 1)
 X- & Y-Components
Next we choose a coordinate system (Step 2)
It will probably be easiest to choose the
x-coordinate in the direction of the car’s
motion
Next, decompose each force into x- and y-
components (Step 3)
f, n, & w are already completely in the x-
or y-direction

Must replace the tension, T, with

components Tx & Ty
T
SOHCAHTOA Ty
Warning: DO NOT just assume that
θ Tx
the x-component has a cosine, and Tx Ty
cos ✓ = sin ✓ =
the y-component has a sine T T
(depends on the angle definition) Tx = T cos ✓ Ty = T sin ✓
 Apply Newton’s 2nd Lawy
Notice that Tx & Ty have replaced T in our diagram
n Ty
Apply Newton’s 2nd law in the x- and y-directions
(Step 4) x
f Tx
Note this problem only has 1 object w
We have now translated all of the information
X
from the force diagram into equations
Fx = max

We will likely also make use of additional (1) Tx f = max

relationships bet ween these variables X 0
Fy = may
Notice we have done most of the work to solve the
problem without even considering the precise (2) Ty + n w=0
question (or plugging in any numbers) yet
Also, don’t forget:
A homework or exam problem will likely provide (3) w = mg (4) f = µr n
all of this information except for the 1
quantity that we will have to solve for (Step 5) (5) Tx = T cos ✓ (6) Ty = T sin ✓
 Results So Far
(1) Tx f = max (2) Ty + n w=0

(3) w = mg (4) f = µr n
Can substitute into (1) & (2)
(5) Tx = T cos ✓ (6) Ty = T sin ✓

(1) T cos ✓ µr n = max (2) T sin ✓ + n mg = 0

All of our information is now contained in 2 equations

1 from the x-direction forces, and 1 from the y-

direction forces
 Sample Question 1
A car with a mass of 1500 kg is being towed at a
steady speed by a rope held at a 20° angle from the
horizontal. A friction force of 320 N opposes the
car’s motion. What is the tension in the rope?

(1) T cos ✓ µr n = max (2) T sin ✓ + n mg = 0

friction force given: fr = µrn = 320 N

“steady speed”, so ax = 0
Can use equation (1): T cos ✓ fr = 0
fr (320 N)
T = = = 340 N
cos ✓ cos(20 )
 Sample Question 2
A car with a mass of 1500 kg is being towed by a rope
held at a 20° angle to the horizontal. A friction force
of 320 N opposes the car’s motion. What is the tension
in the rope if the car goes from rest to 12 m/s in 10 s?

(1) T cos ✓ µr n = max (2) T sin ✓ + n mg = 0

friction force given: fr = µrn = 320 N
information about a = v = (12 m/s 0) = 1.2 m/s2
x
acceleration given: t (10 s)
Can use equation (1): T cos ✓ fr = max
2
max + fr (1500 kg)(1.2 m/s ) + (320 N)
T = = = 2300 N
cos ✓ cos(20 )
 Sample Question 3
A car with a mass of 1500 kg is being towed by a
rope held at a 20° angle to the horizontal. The tension
in the rope is 3600 N, and the coefficient of rolling
friction is 0.03. What is the acceleration of the car?

(1) T cos ✓ µr n = max (2) T sin ✓ + n mg = 0

Use equations (1) & (2) to eliminate n:
(2) T sin ✓ + n mg = 0 ! n = mg T sin ✓
(1) T cos ✓ µr n = max ! T cos ✓ µr (mg T sin ✓) = max

T (cos ✓ + µr sin ✓) µr mg
ax =
m
2
(3600 N)(cos(20 ) + (0.03) sin(20 )) (0.03)(1500 kg)(9.81 m/s ) 2
= = 2.0 m/s
(1500 kg)
 Board Problem
A 1000-kg barge is being towed by means of t wo horizontal
cables. One cable is pulling with a force of 80.0 N in a
direction 30.0° west of north. In what direction should the
second cable pull so that the barge will accelerate northward,
if the force exerted by the cable is 120 N? (Assume that the
water exerts no appreciable frictional drag on the barge.)
Fnet N
T1y T 2y
SOACAHTOA: cos ✓1 = cos ✓2 = T2x
T1 T2 T1x
T1y T2y
T1x T2x θ1 θ2 T
sin ✓1 = sin ✓2 = T 1 2
T1 T2
X 0
Newton’s 2nd Law: Fx = max Require F = 0 W E
net,x
S
T2x T1x = 0 ! T2 sin ✓2 = T1 sin ✓1
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
T1 1 T1 (80 N)
sin ✓2 = sin ✓1 ! ✓2 = sin sin ✓1 = sin 1
(120 N)
sin(30 ) = 19.5
T2 T2
 Apparent Weight
Upward Acceleration
Imagine a man standing on a scale in an
elevator
The scale will read the value of the
normal force acting on the man

If the elevator is at rest (or moving with a

constant velocity), the scale will read his
normal weight (w = mg)
When the elevator is accelerating upward,
the normal force increases, and the man’s
apparent weight is larger
Scale
It’s more difficult for the man to stand up n w = ma
When the elevator is accelerating downward, wapp = n = w + ma
the normal force decreases, and the man’s
apparent weight is smaller Upward acceleration: a is positive
Downward acceleration: a is negative
The man feels lighter on his feet
 Board Problem
Anjay’s mass is 70 kg. He is standing on a scale in an elevator
that is moving at 5.0 m/s. As the elevator stops, the scale
reads 750 N. Before it stopped, was the elevator moving up or
down? How long did the elevator take to come to rest?

Anjay’s weight at rest: w = mg = (70 kg)(9.81 m/s2 ) = 686.7 N

Anjay’s apparent weight > rest weight

! Acceleration is upward while coming to a stop
! Elevator is moving downward (i.e. velocity is downward)
X
Fy = ma ! n w = ma ! wapp = n = w + ma
2
a = (n w)/m = ((750 N) (686.7 N))/(70 kg) = 0.904 m/s
v v (5.0 m/s 0)
a=
t
! t=
a
= 2 = 5.5 s
(0.904 m/s )
“Weightlessness”
What if an elevator accelerates
downward with an acceleration
of g?
What will the scale read? Scale

wapp = n = mg ma
The person’s apparent weight will
be zero
The “vomit comet”
They will be able to float
around like an astronaut on
the space station
Note that the person’s actual
weight (w = mg) has not changed
 Drag Force
A ball falling
through air

Any object moving through a fluid (e.g. air, water) The drag force points
will experience a drag force opposite the velocity

There are 2 main effects that cause drag forces:

Inertial forces: the particles in the fluid must be x

moved out of the way (i.e. their inertia must be lz
Force an object exerts ρ = density (mass/volume) A overcome) object
vx
on a block of air
⇢lx ly lz vx fluid ly
2
Fx = max ⇠ ⇢V ⇠ ⇢Av(2xof 2)
⇠ Reynolds Number
t vx t lx
(depends on how easy it is for the
fluid to move around the object)
• The Reynolds number is the ratio of the inertial v
x force to the viscous
force:
Viscous forces: there is internal friction
Reynolds number = Re =
inertial forces
=
rv L
=
rvL 2 2

bet ween layers of fluid flowing around an object l forces hLv h

viscous

(high viscosity = high “thickness”) • A high Reynolds number Table 5.3 Density and viscosity
(over 1000) is dominated by
What shear force is needed to move the fluid layer at some velocity, vx? Fluid ρ (kg / m3 ) η (Pa ! s)
Rho left parenthesis kilograms per cubic Eta left parenthesis pascal seconds right parenthesis.

inertial forces.
meter right parenthesis.

Air (20°C at sea level) 1.20

1.8 times 10 to the negative fifth power.

1.8 ´ 10 -5
(like spreading butter between bread and• aAknife)
low Reynolds number Ethyl alcohol (20°C) 790 1.3 ´ 10 -3
1.3 times 10 to the negative third power.

(less than 1) is dominated by

Fx ⇠ ⌘ · A · v x / l Olive oil (20°C) 910 8.4 ´ 10 -2
8.4 times 10 to the negative second power.

viscosity. Water (20°C) 1000 1.0 ´ 10 -3

1.0 times 10 to the negative third power.

Water (40°C) 1000

7.0 times 10 to the negative fourth power.

7.0 ´ 10 -4
Honey (20°C) 1400 10
η = viscosity (friction force between fluid layers)
Honey (40°C) 1400 1.7
 Calculating Drag
The relative strength of inertial and viscous forces is
characterized by the dimensionless Reynolds number, Re
2 ⇢lv
inertial forces ⇢Av l = characteristic size
Re = = Re Drag
= at High Reynolds
of the object
Numb
viscous forces ⌘Av/l ⌘ (e.g. diameter of a sphere)

High Re (> 1000) means inertial forces dominate

• Typical Drag Coefficients
Drag coefficients
Object CD
1
D = CD ⇢Av 2
Commercial airliner 0.024
CD=0.8
Toyota Prius 0.24
2 Pitched baseball 0.35
constant of CD=0.5 Racing cyclist 0.88
proportionality CD=1.1 Running person 1.2

Low Re (< 1) means viscous forces dominate

Dsphere = 6⇡⌘rv Typically for very small objects Copyright © 2019 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserve

(can usually be modeled as a sphere)

constant of
proportionality

Intermediate values (1-1000) are a mixture, and more

complicated to analyze (beyond the scope of PHY 121)
 Terminal Velocity
When an object is dropped,
gravity begins accelerating it
As the speed increases, the drag
forces also increases
Eventually, the size of the drag
force becomes as large as the
force of gravity
Now, the net force is zero, and
the velocity remains constant w = mg
1 2
DRe>1000 = CD ⇢Av
The velocity at which D = w is 2
known as the terminal velocity DRe<1 = 6⇡⌘rv
 Board Problem
2 boxes, each with equal mass and dimensions
10 cm x 20 cm x 40 cm, are dropped out of
an airplane (large Re). Due to the distribution of
the mass in each box, they fall differently, as
40 cm
shown in the figure. How much faster (terminal 1 10 cm 2
velocity) does box 1 fall than box 2?
40 cm
10 cm
1 2
At terminal velocity: mg = CD ⇢Av
r2
2mg
Solve for v: v=
CD ⇢A
q r
2mg
v1 CD ⇢A1 A2
Take the ratio v1/v2: v2
=q =
2mg
CD ⇢A2
A1
s
(40 cm)(20 cm) p
= = 4=2
(10 cm)(20 cm)
List of Forces (Again)
 Objects in Contact
When there are 2 or more
objects in a problem, a force
diagram can be drawn for each
object X
FAx = mA aAx
X
FAy = mA aAy
Newton’s 2nd law X
FBx = mB aBx
gives 4 equations: X
FBy = mB aBy

If 2 objects are in contact,

Newton’s 3rd Law applies:
FA on B = FB on A
Also, if they are forced to
move together, they must
have the same acceleration
 Ropes and Tension
We have already seen the ropes
exert a tension force on objects
Newton’s 3rd Law:
Fbox on rope = T

Typically, we will assume the

rope is massless:
0
ΣFrope = F - T = mrope a = 0
→ F=T

The rope tension transmits

forces as if the attached
objects/agents were in
contact with each other
 Pulleys
For a massless, frictionless
pulley, the tension in the
rope is unchanged
The rope is treated
identically to the case in
which it were straight
(i.e. not directed around a
pulley)
In later chapters we will
consider massive pulleys
(which require a non-zero
force to turn)
 Board Problem
A block of mass m1 resting on a 20° slope. The block has
μs=0.64 & μk=0.54 with the surface of the slope. It is
connected using a very light string over an ideal pulley to a
hanging block of mass 2.0 kg. What is the minimum m1 so the
system will remain at rest when it is released from rest?
y1 Step 1: Free-Body Diagram, Step 2: Choose x & y,
x1
n Step 3: Decompose into Fx & Fy, Step 4: Fnet = ma (in x & y),
Step 5: Solve equations
fs X X 0 X 0
1 T T Fx1 = m1 ax1 Fy1 = m1 ay1 Fy2 = m1 ay2
x2
m2 = 0
wy1 T fs wx1 = m1 a n wy1 = 0 T + w2 = 0
w1 θ y2
w2 m1,min ! fs,max = µs n
wx1
wy1 T µs n m1,min g sin ✓ = 0 n = m1,min g cos ✓ T = m2 g
cos ✓ =
w1
wx1 Eliminate T & n: (m2 g) µs (m1,min g cos ✓) m1,min g sin ✓ = 0
sin ✓ =
w1 Solve for m1,min : m1,min (µs g cos ✓ + g sin ✓) = m2 g
m2 g (2.0 kg)
m1,min = = = 2.12 kg
µs g cos ✓ + g sin ✓ (0.64) cos(20 ) + sin(20 )
 Summary I
How to solve force problems:
Step 1: Draw a force (free-body) diagram for all relevant objects in the
problem

Step 2: Choose a coordinate system (i.e. x- and y-axes) for each object

Note: It usually easiest to align 1 coordinate (e.g the x-axis) with the
expected direction of the acceleration

Step 3: Decompose all of the forces into their x- and y- components

Step 4: Apply Newton’s second law to all relevant objects in the problem:
X X

{
Object 1: Fx,1 = m1 ax Fy,1 = m1 ay
! ! X X
F net = m a Object 2: Fx,2 = m2 ax Fy,2 = m2 ay
(for all objects) .. .. ..
. . .
Step 5: Solve for the requested variable(s)
Summary III