Built-in Data Types

In programming, data type is an important concept.

Variables can store data of different types, and different types can do
different things.

Python has the following data types built-in by default, in these categories:

Text Type: str

Numeric Types: int, float, complex

Sequence Types: list, tuple, range

Mapping Type: dict

Set Types: set, frozenset

Boolean Type: bool

Binary Types: bytes, bytearray, memoryview

None Type: NoneType

Example Data Type Try it

x = "Hello World" str

x = 20 int

x = 20.5 float

x = 1j complex

x = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"] list

x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry") tuple

x = range(6) range

x = {"name" : "John", "age" : 36} dict

x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"} set

x = frozenset({"apple", "banana", "cherry"}) frozenset

x = Truebool

x = b"Hello" bytes

x = bytearray(5) bytearray

x = memoryview(bytes(5)) memoryview

x = None NoneType

Setting the Specific Data Type

If you want to specify the data type, you can use the following constructor functions:

Example Data Type Try it

x = str("Hello World") str

x = int(20) int

x = float(20.5) float

x = complex(1j) complex

x = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) list

x = tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) tuple

x = range(6) range

x = dict(name="John", age=36) dict

x = set(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) set

x = frozenset(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) frozenset

x = bool(5) bool

x = bytes(5) bytes

x = bytearray(5) bytearray

x = memoryview(bytes(5)) memoryview
Python Numbers
There are three numeric types in Python:

 int
 float
 complex

Variables of numeric types are created when you assign a value to them:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex

Int
Int, or integer, is a whole number, positive or negative, without decimals, of
unlimited length.

Example
Integers:

x = 1
y = 35656222554887711
z = -3255522

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Try it Yourself »

Float
Float, or "floating point number" is a number, positive or negative, containing
one or more decimals.
Example
Floats:

x = 1.10
y = 1.0
z = -35.59

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Type Conversion
You can convert from one type to another with the int(), float(),
and complex() methods:

Example
Convert from one type to another:

x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex

#convert from int to float:

a = float(x)

#convert from float to int:

b = int(y)

#convert from int to complex:

c = complex(x)

print(a)
print(b)
print(c)

print(type(a))
print(type(b))
print(type(c))

Random Number
Python does not have a random() function to make a random number, but
Python has a built-in module called random that can be used to make random
numbers:

Example
Import the random module, and display a random number between 1 and 9:

import random

print(random.randrange(1, 10))

Strings
Strings in python are surrounded by either single quotation marks, or double
quotation marks.

'hello' is the same as "hello".

You can display a string literal with the print() function:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

print("Hello")
print('Hello')

Try it Yourself »

Quotes Inside Quotes

You can use quotes inside a string, as long as they don't match the quotes
surrounding the string:

Example
print("It's alright")
print("He is called 'Johnny'")
print('He is called "Johnny"')

Try it Yourself »
Assign String to a Variable
Assigning a string to a variable is done with the variable name followed by an
equal sign and the string:

Example
a = "Hello"
print(a)

Try it Yourself »

Multiline Strings
You can assign a multiline string to a variable by using three quotes:

Example
You can use three double quotes:

a = """Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,

consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua."""
print(a)

Try it Yourself »

Or three single quotes:

Example
a = '''Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.'''
print(a)

Try it Yourself »

Multiline Strings
You can assign a multiline string to a variable by using three quotes:

Example
You can use three double quotes:

a = """Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,

consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua."""
print(a)

Try it Yourself »

Strings are Arrays

Like many other popular programming languages, strings in Python are
arrays of bytes representing unicode characters.

However, Python does not have a character data type, a single character is
simply a string with a length of 1.

Square brackets can be used to access elements of the string.

Example
Get the character at position 1 (remember that the first character has the
position 0):

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a[1])

Try it Yourself »

Looping Through a String

Since strings are arrays, we can loop through the characters in a string, with
a for loop.

Example
Loop through the letters in the word "banana":

for x in "banana":
print(x)

Try it Yourself »
String Length
To get the length of a string, use the len() function.

Example
The len() function returns the length of a string:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(len(a))

Try it Yourself »

heck String
To check if a certain phrase or character is present in a string, we can use the
keyword in.

Example
Check if "free" is present in the following text:

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

print("free" in txt)

Try it Yourself »

Use it in an if statement:

Example
Print only if "free" is present:

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

if "free" in txt:
print("Yes, 'free' is present.")

Try it Yourself »

Check if NOT
To check if a certain phrase or character is NOT present in a string, we can
use the keyword not in.
Example
Check if "expensive" is NOT present in the following text:

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

print("expensive" not in txt)

Upper Case

ExampleGet your own Python Server

The upper() method returns the string in upper case:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.upper())

Try it Yourself »

Remove Whitespace

Whitespace is the space before and/or after the actual text, and very often you want to remove this
space.

Example

The strip() method removes any whitespace from the beginning or the end:

a = " Hello, World! "

print(a.strip()) # returns "Hello, World!"

Lower Case

Example

The lower() method returns the string in lower case:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.lower())

Split String

The split() method returns a list where the text between the specified separator becomes the list
items.

Example

The split() method splits the string into substrings if it finds instances of the separator:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.split(",")) # returns ['Hello', ' World!']

Try it Yourself »

Example
Display the price with 2 decimals:

price = 59
txt = f"The price is {price:.2f} dollars"
print(txt)

F-Strings

F-String was introduced in Python 3.6, and is now the preferred way of formatting strings.

To specify a string as an f-string, simply put an f in front of the string literal, and add curly
brackets {} as placeholders for variables and other operations.

Example

Create an f-string:

age = 36
txt = f"My name is John, I am {age}"
print(txt)

Try it Yourself »

Escape Character

To insert characters that are illegal in a string, use an escape character.

An escape character is a backslash \ followed by the character you want to insert.

An example of an illegal character is a double quote inside a string that is surrounded by double
quotes:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

You will get an error if you use double quotes inside a string that is surrounded by double quotes:

txt = "We are the so-called "Vikings" from the north."

Try it Yourself »

To fix this problem, use the escape character \":

Example

The escape character allows you to use double quotes when you normally would not be allowed:

txt = "We are the so-called \"Vikings\" from the north."

String Methods

Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on strings.

Note: All string methods return new values. They do not change the original string.

Method Description
capitalize() Converts the first character to upper case

casefold() Converts string into lower case

center() Returns a centered string

count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a string

encode() Returns an encoded version of the string

endswith() Returns true if the string ends with the specified value

expandtabs() Sets the tab size of the string

find() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the position of where it was found

format() Formats specified values in a string

format_map() Formats specified values in a string

index() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the position of where it was found

isalnum() Returns True if all characters in the string are alphanumeric

isalpha() Returns True if all characters in the string are in the alphabet

isascii() Returns True if all characters in the string are ascii characters

isdecimal() Returns True if all characters in the string are decimals

isdigit() Returns True if all characters in the string are digits

isidentifier() Returns True if the string is an identifier

islower() Returns True if all characters in the string are lower case

isnumeric() Returns True if all characters in the string are numeric

isprintable() Returns True if all characters in the string are printable

isspace() Returns True if all characters in the string are whitespaces

istitle() Returns True if the string follows the rules of a title

isupper() Returns True if all characters in the string are upper case

join() Joins the elements of an iterable to the end of the string

ljust() Returns a left justified version of the string

lower() Converts a string into lower case

lstrip() Returns a left trim version of the string

maketrans() Returns a translation table to be used in translations

partition() Returns a tuple where the string is parted into three parts

replace() Returns a string where a specified value is replaced with a specified value

rfind() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the last position of where it was found

rindex() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the last position of where it was found

rjust() Returns a right justified version of the string

rpartition() Returns a tuple where the string is parted into three parts

rsplit() Splits the string at the specified separator, and returns a list

rstrip() Returns a right trim version of the string

split() Splits the string at the specified separator, and returns a list

splitlines() Splits the string at line breaks and returns a list

startswith() Returns true if the string starts with the specified value

strip() Returns a trimmed version of the string

 swapcase() Swaps cases, lower case becomes upper case and vice versa

title() Converts the first character of each word to upper case

translate() Returns a translated string

upper() Converts a string into upper case

zfill() Fills the string with a specified number of 0 values at the beginning

Example

Evaluate two variables:

x = "Hello"
y = 15

print(bool(x))
print(bool(y))

Some Values are False

In fact, there are not many values that evaluate to False, except empty values, such as (), [], {}, "", the
number 0, and the value None. And of course the value False evaluates to False.

Example

The following will return False:

bool(False)
bool(None)
bool(0)
bool("")
bool(())
bool([])
bool({})

Functions can Return a Boolean

You can create functions that returns a Boolean Value:

Example

Print the answer of a function:

def myFunction() :
return True

print(myFunction())

Python Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators are used with numeric values to perform common mathematical operations:

Operator Name Example

+ Addition x+y

- Subtraction x-y

* Multiplication x*y

/ Division x/y

% Modulus x%y

** Exponentiation x ** y

// Floor division x // y

Python Assignment Operators

Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables:

Operator Example Same As Try

= x=5 x=5 Try

+= x += 3 x=x+3 Try

-= x -= 3 x=x-3 Try

*= x *= 3 x=x*3 Try
 /= x /= 3 x=x/3 Try

%= x %= 3 x=x%3 Try

//= x //= 3 x = x // 3 Try

**= x **= 3 x = x ** 3 Try

&= x &= 3 x=x&3 Try

|= x |= 3 x=x|3 Try

^= x ^= 3 x=x^3 Try

>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3 Try

<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3 Try

:= print(x := 3) x=3 Try

print(x)

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Python Comparison Operators

Comparison operators are used to compare two values:

Operator Name Example

== Equal x == y

!= Not equal x != y

> Greater than x>y

< Less than x<y

>= Greater than or equal to x >= y

 <= Less than or equal to x <= y

Python Logical Operators

Logical operators are used to combine conditional statements:

Operator Description Example

and Returns True if both statements are true x < 5 and x < 10

or Returns True if one of the statements is true x < 5 or x < 4

not Reverse the result, returns False if the result is not(x < 5 and x < 10)
true

Python Identity Operators

Identity operators are used to compare the objects, not if they are equal, but if they are actually the
same object, with the same memory location:

Operator Description Example

is Returns True if both variables are the same x is y

object

is not Returns True if both variables are not the same x is not y
object

Python Membership Operators

Membership operators are used to test if a sequence is presented in an object:

Operator Description Example

in Returns True if a sequence with the specified value is x in y

present in the object

not in Returns True if a sequence with the specified value is not x not in y
present in the object
Python Bitwise Operators

Bitwise operators are used to compare (binary) numbers:

Operator Name Description Example

& AND Sets each bit to 1 if both bits are 1 x&y

| OR Sets each bit to 1 if one of two bits is 1 x|y

^ XOR Sets each bit to 1 if only one of two bits is 1 x^y

~ NOT Inverts all the bits ~x

<< Zero fill left Shift left by pushing zeros in from the right and let the x << 2
shift leftmost bits fall off

>> Signed right Shift right by pushing copies of the leftmost bit in from the x >> 2
shift left, and let the rightmost bits fall off

Operator Precedence

Operator precedence describes the order in which operations are performed.

Example

Parentheses has the highest precedence, meaning that expressions inside parentheses must be
evaluated first:

print((6 + 3) - (6 + 3))

Run example »

Example

Multiplication * has higher precedence than addition +, and therefor multiplications are evaluated
before additions:

print(100 + 5 * 3)

Run example »

The precedence order is described in the table below, starting with the highest precedence at the
top:

Operator Description

() Parentheses
 ** Exponentiation

+x -x ~x Unary plus, unary minus, and bitwise NOT

* / // % Multiplication, division, floor division, and modulus

+ - Addition and subtraction

<< >> Bitwise left and right shifts

& Bitwise AND

^ Bitwise XOR

| Bitwise OR

== != > >= < <= is is not in not Comparisons, identity, and membership operators
in

not Logical NOT

and AND

or OR

If two operators have the same precedence, the expression is evaluated from left to right.

Example

Addition + and subtraction - has the same precedence, and therefor we evaluate the expression from
left to right:

print(5 + 4 - 7 + 3)
List

Lists are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

Lists are one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the other 3
are Tuple, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.

Lists are created using square brackets:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Create a List:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist)

List Length

To determine how many items a list has, use the len() function:

Example

Print the number of items in the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(len(thislist))

Python Collections (Arrays)

There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:

 List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate members.

 Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows duplicate members.

 Set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed. No duplicate

members.

 Dictionary is a collection which is ordered** and changeable. No duplicate members.

 *Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove and/or add items
whenever you like.
 **As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and
earlier, dictionaries are unordered.
Python - Add List Items

❮ PreviousNext ❯

Append Items

To add an item to the end of the list, use the append() method:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Using the append() method to append an item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.append("orange")
print(thislist)

Try it Yourself »

Insert Items

To insert a list item at a specified index, use the insert() method.

The insert() method inserts an item at the specified index:

Example

Insert an item as the second position:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.insert(1, "orange")
print(thislist)

Try it Yourself »

Note: As a result of the examples above, the lists will now contain 4 items.

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Extend List

To append elements from another list to the current list, use the extend() method.

Example

Add the elements of tropical to thislist:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

tropical = ["mango", "pineapple", "papaya"]
thislist.extend(tropical)
print(thislist)

Try it Yourself »

The elements will be added to the end of the list.

Add Any Iterable

The extend() method does not have to append lists, you can add any iterable object (tuples, sets,
dictionaries etc.).

Example

Add elements of a tuple to a list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thistuple = ("kiwi", "orange")
thislist.extend(thistuple)
print(thislist)

Remove Specified Item

The remove() method removes the specified item.

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Remove "banana":

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.remove("banana")
print(thislist)

Python - Remove List Items

❮ PreviousNext ❯

Remove Specified Item

The remove() method removes the specified item.

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Remove "banana":

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.remove("banana")
print(thislist)

Try it Yourself »

If there are more than one item with the specified value, the remove() method removes the first
occurrence:

Example

Remove the first occurrence of "banana":

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "banana", "kiwi"]

thislist.remove("banana")
print(thislist)

Try it Yourself »

Remove Specified Index

The pop() method removes the specified index.

Example

Remove the second item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.pop(1)
print(thislist)

Try it Yourself »

If you do not specify the index, the pop() method removes the last item.

Example

Remove the last item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.pop()
print(thislist)

Try it Yourself »

The del keyword also removes the specified index:

Example

Remove the first item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

del thislist[0]
print(thislist)
Try it Yourself »

The del keyword can also delete the list completely.

Example

Delete the entire list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

del thislist

Try it Yourself »

Clear the List

The clear() method empties the list.

The list still remains, but it has no content.

Example

Clear the list content:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.clear()
print(thislist)

Try it Yourself »

ExampleGet your own Python Server

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]
newlist = []

for x in fruits:
if "a" in x:
newlist.append(x)

print(newlist)

Try it Yourself »

With list comprehension you can do all that with only one line of code:

Example
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]

newlist = [x for x in fruits if "a" in x]

print(newlist)

Example
Only accept items that are not "apple":

newlist = [x for x in fruits if x != "apple"]

Try it Yourself »

The condition if x != "apple" will return True for all elements other than
"apple", making the new list contain all fruits except "apple".

The condition is optional and can be omitted:

Example
With no if statement:

newlist = [x for x in fruits]

Iterable
The iterable can be any iterable object, like a list, tuple, set etc.

Example
You can use the range() function to create an iterable:

newlist = [x for x in range(10)]

Try it Yourself »

Same example, but with a condition:

Example
Accept only numbers lower than 5:

newlist = [x for x in range(10) if x < 5]

Sort List Alphanumerically

List objects have a sort() method that will sort the list
alphanumerically, ascending, by default:
ExampleGet your own Python Server
Sort the list alphabetically:

thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]

thislist.sort()
print(thislist)

Sort List Alphanumerically

List objects have a sort() method that will sort the list
alphanumerically, ascending, by default:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Sort the list alphabetically:

thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]

thislist.sort()
print(thislist)

Try it Yourself »

Example
Sort the list numerically:

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

thislist.sort()
print(thislist)

Try it Yourself »

Sort Descending
To sort descending, use the keyword argument reverse = True:

Example
Sort the list descending:

thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]

thislist.sort(reverse = True)
print(thislist)
Try it Yourself »

Example
Sort the list descending:

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

thislist.sort(reverse = True)
print(thislist)

Try it Yourself »

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Customize Sort Function

You can also customize your own function by using the keyword
argument key = function.

The function will return a number that will be used to sort the list (the lowest
number first):

Example
Sort the list based on how close the number is to 50:

def myfunc(n):
return abs(n - 50)

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

thislist.sort(key = myfunc)
print(thislist)

Try it Yourself »

Case Insensitive Sort

By default the sort() method is case sensitive, resulting in all capital letters
being sorted before lower case letters:
Example
Case sensitive sorting can give an unexpected result:

thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]

thislist.sort()
print(thislist)

Try it Yourself »

Luckily we can use built-in functions as key functions when sorting a list.

So if you want a case-insensitive sort function, use str.lower as a key

function:

Example
Perform a case-insensitive sort of the list:

thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]

thislist.sort(key = str.lower)
print(thislist)

Try it Yourself »

Reverse Order
What if you want to reverse the order of a list, regardless of the alphabet?

The reverse() method reverses the current sorting order of the elements.

Example
Reverse the order of the list items:

thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]

thislist.reverse()
print(thislist)

Try it Yourself »
Python - Copy Lists
❮ PreviousNext ❯

Copy a List
You cannot copy a list simply by typing list2 = list1, because: list2 will
only be a reference to list1, and changes made in list1 will automatically
also be made in list2.

Use the copy() method

You can use the built-in List method copy() to copy a list.

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Make a copy of a list with the copy() method:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

mylist = thislist.copy()
print(mylist)

Use the list() method

Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in method list().

Example
Make a copy of a list with the list() method:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

mylist = list(thislist)
print(mylist)

Use the slice Operator

You can also make a copy of a list by using the : (slice) operator.
Example
Make a copy of a list with the : operator:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

mylist = thislist[:]
print(mylist)

Try it Yourself »

Join Two Lists

There are several ways to join, or concatenate, two or more lists in Python.

One of the easiest ways are by using the + operator.

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Join two list:

list1 = ["a", "b", "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

list3 = list1 + list2

print(list3)

Try it Yourself »

Another way to join two lists is by appending all the items from list2 into list1,
one by one:

Example
Append list2 into list1:

list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

for x in list2:
list1.append(x)

print(list1)

Try it Yourself »

Or you can use the extend() method, where the purpose is to add elements
from one list to another list:
Example
Use the extend() method to add list2 at the end of list1:

list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

list1.extend(list2)
print(list1)

Try it Yourself »

ist Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists.

Method Description

append() Adds an element at the end of the list

clear() Removes all the elements from the list

copy() Returns a copy of the list

count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value

extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the curren

index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value

insert() Adds an element at the specified position

 pop() Removes the element at the specified position

remove() Removes the item with the specified value

reverse() Reverses the order of the list

sort() Sorts the list

Tuple
Tuples are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

Tuple is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of

data, the other 3 are List, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and
usage.

A tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable.

Tuples are written with round brackets.

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Create a Tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple)
Try it Yourself »

Tuple Items
Tuple items are ordered, unchangeable, and allow duplicate values.

Tuple items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has
index [1] etc.

Ordered
When we say that tuples are ordered, it means that the items have a defined
order, and that order will not change.

Unchangeable
Tuples are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change, add or remove
items after the tuple has been created.

Allow Duplicates
Since tuples are indexed, they can have items with the same value:

Example
Tuples allow duplicate values:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry")

print(thistuple)

Try it Yourself »

Tuple Length
To determine how many items a tuple has, use the len() function:
Example
Print the number of items in the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(len(thistuple))

Try it Yourself »

Create Tuple With One Item

To create a tuple with only one item, you have to add a comma after the
item, otherwise Python will not recognize it as a tuple.

Example
One item tuple, remember the comma:

thistuple = ("apple",)
print(type(thistuple))

#NOT a tuple
thistuple = ("apple")
print(type(thistuple))

Try it Yourself »

Tuple Items - Data Types

Tuple items can be of any data type:

Example
String, int and boolean data types:

tuple1 = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

tuple2 = (1, 5, 7, 9, 3)
tuple3 = (True, False, False)

Try it Yourself »

A tuple can contain different data types:

Example
A tuple with strings, integers and boolean values:

tuple1 = ("abc", 34, True, 40, "male")

Try it Yourself »

type()
From Python's perspective, tuples are defined as objects with the data type
'tuple':

<class 'tuple'>

Example
What is the data type of a tuple?

mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(type(mytuple))

Try it Yourself »

The tuple() Constructor

It is also possible to use the tuple() constructor to make a tuple.

Example
Using the tuple() method to make a tuple:

thistuple = tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the

double round-brackets
print(thistuple)

Try it Yourself »

Python Collections (Arrays)

There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:

 List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate

members.
 Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows
duplicate members.
 Set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed.
No duplicate members.
 Dictionary is a collection which is ordered** and changeable. No
duplicate members.

*Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove and/or add items
whenever you like.

**As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier,
dictionaries are unordered.

When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of

that type. Choosing the right type for a particular data set could mean
retention of meaning, and, it could mean an increase in efficiency or security.

Access Tuple Items

You can access tuple items by referring to the index number, inside square
brackets:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Print the second item in the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple[1])

Try it Yourself »

Note: The first item has index 0.

Negative Indexing
Negative indexing means start from the end.

-1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item etc.
Example
Print the last item of the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple[-1])

Try it Yourself »

Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to
end the range.

When specifying a range, the return value will be a new tuple with the
specified items.

Example
Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:

thistuple =
("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[2:5])

Try it Yourself »

Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not
included).

Remember that the first item has index 0.

By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the first item:

Example
This example returns the items from the beginning to, but NOT included,
"kiwi":

thistuple =
("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[:4])

Try it Yourself »

By leaving out the end value, the range will go on to the end of the tuple:
Example
This example returns the items from "cherry" and to the end:

thistuple =
("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[2:])

Try it Yourself »

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Range of Negative Indexes

Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the
tuple:

Example
This example returns the items from index -4 (included) to index -1
(excluded)

thistuple =
("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[-4:-1])

Try it Yourself »

Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a tuple use the in keyword:

Example
Check if "apple" is present in the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

if "apple" in thistuple:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits tuple")
Python - Update Tuples
❮ PreviousNext ❯

Tuples are unchangeable, meaning that you cannot change, add, or remove
items once the tuple is created.

But there are some workarounds.

Change Tuple Values

Once a tuple is created, you cannot change its values. Tuples
are unchangeable, or immutable as it also is called.

But there is a workaround. You can convert the tuple into a list, change the
list, and convert the list back into a tuple.

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Convert the tuple into a list to be able to change it:

x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = list(x)
y[1] = "kiwi"
x = tuple(y)

print(x)

Try it Yourself »

Add Items
Since tuples are immutable, they do not have a built-in append() method,
but there are other ways to add items to a tuple.

1. Convert into a list: Just like the workaround for changing a tuple, you
can convert it into a list, add your item(s), and convert it back into a tuple.
Example
Convert the tuple into a list, add "orange", and convert it back into a tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = list(thistuple)
y.append("orange")
thistuple = tuple(y)

Try it Yourself »

2. Add tuple to a tuple. You are allowed to add tuples to tuples, so if you
want to add one item, (or many), create a new tuple with the item(s), and
add it to the existing tuple:

Example
Create a new tuple with the value "orange", and add that tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = ("orange",)
thistuple += y

print(thistuple)

Try it Yourself »

Note: When creating a tuple with only one item, remember to include a
comma after the item, otherwise it will not be identified as a tuple.

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Remove Items
Note: You cannot remove items in a tuple.

Tuples are unchangeable, so you cannot remove items from it, but you can
use the same workaround as we used for changing and adding tuple items:
Example
Convert the tuple into a list, remove "apple", and convert it back into a tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = list(thistuple)
y.remove("apple")
thistuple = tuple(y)

Try it Yourself »

Or you can delete the tuple completely:

Example
The del keyword can delete the tuple completely:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

del thistuple
print(thistuple) #this will raise an error because the tuple no
longer exists
y= ("uop" , "mon", "opo", "popo", 84 , 333, 22)

print(len(y))

print(y[1])

print(y[-1])

print (y[0:3])

print (y[:7])

print (y[0:])

print(y[-6:-2])

if "uop" in y:

print ("yes uop is available!")

x=list(y)

x[2]="Kiwi"

x.append("orange")

y=tuple(x)
print (y)

z= ("ford", "BMW", "choferlate", "opel", "olduz")

s= y+z

print (s)

m=list(s)

m.remove("uop")

s=tuple(m)

print(s)

Unpacking a Tuple
When we create a tuple, we normally assign values to it. This is called
"packing" a tuple:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Packing a tuple:

fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

Try it Yourself »

But, in Python, we are also allowed to extract the values back into variables.
This is called "unpacking":

Example
Unpacking a tuple:

fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

(green, yellow, red) = fruits

print(green)
print(yellow)
print(red)

Try it Yourself »

Note: The number of variables must match the number of values in the
tuple, if not, you must use an asterisk to collect the remaining values as a
list.
 ADVERTISEMENT

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Using Asterisk*
If the number of variables is less than the number of values, you can add
an * to the variable name and the values will be assigned to the variable as a
list:

Example
Assign the rest of the values as a list called "red":

fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "strawberry", "raspberry")

(green, yellow, *red) = fruits

print(green)
print(yellow)
print(red)

Try it Yourself »

If the asterisk is added to another variable name than the last, Python will
assign values to the variable until the number of values left matches the
number of variables left.

Example
Add a list of values the "tropic" variable:

fruits = ("apple", "mango", "papaya", "pineapple", "cherry")

(green, *tropic, red) = fruits

print(green)
print(tropic)
print(red)

Try it Yourself »
for x in fruits:

print (x)

(green, *tropic, red) = fruits

print(green)

print(tropic)

print(red)

print ("End")

ython - Tuple Methods

❮ PreviousNext ❯

Tuple Methods
Python has two built-in methods that you can use on tuples.

Method Description

count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a

index() Searches the tuple for a specified value and returns the p
fruits = ("apple", "mango", "papaya", "pineapple", "cherry")

for x in fruits:

print (x)

(green, *tropic, red) = fruits

print(green)

print(tropic)

print(red)

print ("End")

for i in range(len(fruits)):

print (fruits[i])

print ("End2")

t = ("1", "2", "3")

i=0

while i < len(t):

print (t[i])

i=i+1

z = fruits + t

print (z)
m= t * 3

print (m)

y= ("uop" , "mon", "opo", "popo", 84 , 333, 22)

print(len(y))

print(y[1])

print(y[-1])

print (y[0:3])

print (y[:7])

print (y[0:])

print(y[-6:-2])

if "uop" in y:

print ("yes uop is available!")

x=list(y)

x[2]="Kiwi"

x.append("orange")

y=tuple(x)

print (y)

z= ("ford", "BMW", "choferlate", "opel", "olduz")

(like , love , *unlike) = z

print (like)

print (love)

print (unlike)

s= y+z

print (s)

m=list(s)

m.remove("uop")
s=tuple(m)

print(s)

Python Sets
❮ PreviousNext ❯

myset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

Set
Sets are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

Set is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data,
the other 3 are List, Tuple, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and
usage.

A set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed.

* Note: Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove items and add new
items.

Sets are written with curly brackets.

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Create a Set:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
print(thisset)

Try it Yourself »

Note: Sets are unordered, so you cannot be sure in which order the items
will appear.

Set Items
Set items are unordered, unchangeable, and do not allow duplicate values.

Unordered
Unordered means that the items in a set do not have a defined order.

Set items can appear in a different order every time you use them, and
cannot be referred to by index or key.

Unchangeable
Set items are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change the items after
the set has been created.

Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can remove
items and add new items.

Duplicates Not Allowed

Sets cannot have two items with the same value.

Example
Duplicate values will be ignored:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple"}

print(thisset)

Try it Yourself »

Note: The values True and 1 are considered the same value in sets, and are
treated as duplicates:

Example
True and 1 is considered the same value:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry", True, 1, 2}

print(thisset)

Try it Yourself »

Note: The values False and 0 are considered the same value in sets, and are
treated as duplicates:

Example
False and 0 is considered the same value:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry", False, True, 0}

print(thisset)

Try it Yourself »

Get the Length of a Set

To determine how many items a set has, use the len() function.

Example
Get the number of items in a set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(len(thisset))
Try it Yourself »

Set Items - Data Types

Set items can be of any data type:

Example
String, int and boolean data types:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {1, 5, 7, 9, 3}
set3 = {True, False, False}

Try it Yourself »

A set can contain different data types:

Example
A set with strings, integers and boolean values:

set1 = {"abc", 34, True, 40, "male"}

Try it Yourself »

type()
From Python's perspective, sets are defined as objects with the data type
'set':

<class 'set'>

Example
What is the data type of a set?

myset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(type(myset))

Try it Yourself »
The set() Constructor
It is also possible to use the set() constructor to make a set.

Example
Using the set() constructor to make a set:

thisset = set(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double

round-brackets
print(thisset)

Try it Yourself »

Python Collections (Arrays)

There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:

 List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate

members.
 Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows
duplicate members.
 Set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed.
No duplicate members.
 Dictionary is a collection which is ordered** and changeable. No
duplicate members.

*Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove items and add new items.

**As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier,
dictionaries are unordered.

When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of

that type. Choosing the right type for a particular data set could mean
retention of meaning, and, it could mean an increase in efficiency or security.
Python - Access Set
Items
❮ PreviousNext ❯

Access Items
You cannot access items in a set by referring to an index or a key.

But you can loop through the set items using a for loop, or ask if a specified
value is present in a set, by using the in keyword.

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Loop through the set, and print the values:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

for x in thisset:
print(x)

Try it Yourself »

Example
Check if "banana" is present in the set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print("banana" in thisset)

Try it Yourself »

Example
Check if "banana" is NOT present in the set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print("banana" not in thisset)

Try it Yourself »
Change Items

Python - Add Set Items

❮ PreviousNext ❯

Add Items
Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can add new
items.

To add one item to a set use the add() method.

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Add an item to a set, using the add() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.add("orange")

print(thisset)
Try it Yourself »

Add Sets
To add items from another set into the current set, use the update() method.

Example
Add elements from tropical into thisset:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

tropical = {"pineapple", "mango", "papaya"}

thisset.update(tropical)

print(thisset)

Try it Yourself »

Add Any Iterable

The object in the update() method does not have to be a set, it can be any
iterable object (tuples, lists, dictionaries etc.).

Example
Add elements of a list to at set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

mylist = ["kiwi", "orange"]

thisset.update(mylist)

print(thisset)
Python - Remove Set
Items
❮ PreviousNext ❯

Remove Item
To remove an item in a set, use the remove(), or the discard() method.

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Remove "banana" by using the remove() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.remove("banana")

print(thisset)

Try it Yourself »

Note: If the item to remove does not exist, remove() will raise an error.

Example
Remove "banana" by using the discard() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.discard("banana")

print(thisset)

Try it Yourself »

Note: If the item to remove does not exist, discard() will NOT raise an error.

You can also use the pop() method to remove an item, but this method will
remove a random item, so you cannot be sure what item that gets removed.

The return value of the pop() method is the removed item.

Example
Remove a random item by using the pop() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

x = thisset.pop()

print(x)

print(thisset)

Try it Yourself »

Note: Sets are unordered, so when using the pop() method, you do not know
which item that gets removed.

Example
The clear() method empties the set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.clear()

print(thisset)

Try it Yourself »

Example
The del keyword will delete the set completely:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

del thisset

print(thisset)

Python - Loop Sets

❮ PreviousNext ❯

Loop Items
You can loop through the set items by using a for loop:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Loop through the set, and print the values:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

for x in thisset:
print(x)

Try it Yourself »

Python - Join Sets

❮ PreviousNext ❯

Join Sets
There are several ways to join two or more sets in Python.

The union() and update() methods joins all items from both sets.

The intersection() method keeps ONLY the duplicates.

The difference() method keeps the items from the first set that are not in the
other set(s).

The symmetric_difference() method keeps all items EXCEPT the duplicates.

Union
The union() method returns a new set with all items from both sets.
ExampleGet your own Python Server
Join set1 and set2 into a new set:

set1 = {"a", "b", "c"}

set2 = {1, 2, 3}

set3 = set1.union(set2)
print(set3)

Try it Yourself »

You can use the | operator instead of the union() method, and you will get
the same result.

Example
Use | to join two sets:

set1 = {"a", "b", "c"}

set2 = {1, 2, 3}

set3 = set1 | set2

print(set3)

Try it Yourself »

Join Multiple Sets

All the joining methods and operators can be used to join multiple sets.

When using a method, just add more sets in the parentheses, separated by
commas:

Example
Join multiple sets with the union() method:

set1 = {"a", "b", "c"}

set2 = {1, 2, 3}
set3 = {"John", "Elena"}
set4 = {"apple", "bananas", "cherry"}

myset = set1.union(set2, set3, set4)

print(myset)
Try it Yourself »

When using the | operator, separate the sets with more | operators:

Example
Use | to join two sets:

set1 = {"a", "b", "c"}

set2 = {1, 2, 3}
set3 = {"John", "Elena"}
set4 = {"apple", "bananas", "cherry"}

myset = set1 | set2 | set3 |set4

print(myset)

Try it Yourself »

Join a Set and a Tuple

The union() method allows you to join a set with other data types, like lists or
tuples.

The result will be a set.

Example
Join a set with a tuple:

x = {"a", "b", "c"}

y = (1, 2, 3)

z = x.union(y)
print(z)

Try it Yourself »

Note: The | operator only allows you to join sets with sets, and not with
other data types like you can with the union() method.

Update
The update() method inserts all items from one set into another.

The update() changes the original set, and does not return a new set.

Example
The update() method inserts the items in set2 into set1:

set1 = {"a", "b" , "c"}

set2 = {1, 2, 3}

set1.update(set2)
print(set1)

Try it Yourself »

Note: Both union() and update() will exclude any duplicate items.

Intersection
Keep ONLY the duplicates

The intersection() method will return a new set, that only contains the items
that are present in both sets.

Example
Join set1 and set2, but keep only the duplicates:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

set3 = set1.intersection(set2)
print(set3)

Try it Yourself »

You can use the & operator instead of the intersection() method, and you will
get the same result.

Example
Use & to join two sets:
set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
set2 = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

set3 = set1 & set2

print(set3)

Try it Yourself »

Note: The & operator only allows you to join sets with sets, and not with
other data types like you can with the intersection() method.

The intersection_update() method will also keep ONLY the duplicates, but it
will change the original set instead of returning a new set.

Example
Keep the items that exist in both set1, and set2:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

set1.intersection_update(set2)

print(set1)

Try it Yourself »

The values True and 1 are considered the same value. The same goes
for False and 0.

Example
Join sets that contains the values True, False, 1, and 0, and see what is
considered as duplicates:

set1 = {"apple", 1, "banana", 0, "cherry"}

set2 = {False, "google", 1, "apple", 2, True}

set3 = set1.intersection(set2)

print(set3)

Try it Yourself »

Difference
The difference() method will return a new set that will contain only the items
from the first set that are not present in the other set.

Example
Keep all items from set1 that are not in set2:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

set3 = set1.difference(set2)

print(set3)

Try it Yourself »

You can use the - operator instead of the difference() method, and you will
get the same result.

Example
Use - to join two sets:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

set3 = set1 - set2

print(set3)

Try it Yourself »

Note: The - operator only allows you to join sets with sets, and not with
other data types like you can with the difference() method.

The difference_update() method will also keep the items from the first set
that are not in the other set, but it will change the original set instead of
returning a new set.

Example
Use the difference_update() method to keep the items that are not present in
both sets:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

set1.difference_update(set2)

print(set1)
Try it Yourself »

Symmetric Differences
The symmetric_difference() method will keep only the elements that are NOT
present in both sets.

Example
Keep the items that are not present in both sets:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

set3 = set1.symmetric_difference(set2)

print(set3)

Try it Yourself »

You can use the ^ operator instead of the symmetric_difference() method,

and you will get the same result.

Example
Use ^ to join two sets:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

set3 = set1 ^ set2

print(set3)

Try it Yourself »

Note: The ^ operator only allows you to join sets with sets, and not with
other data types like you can with the symmetric_difference() method.

The symmetric_difference_update() method will also keep all but the

duplicates, but it will change the original set instead of returning a new set.

Example
Use the symmetric_difference_update() method to keep the items that are not
present in both sets:
set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
set2 = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

set1.symmetric_difference_update(set2)

print(set1)
Python - Join Sets
❮ PreviousNext ❯

Join Sets
There are several ways to join two or more sets in Python.

The union() and update() methods joins all items from both sets.

The intersection() method keeps ONLY the duplicates.

The difference() method keeps the items from the first set that are not in the
other set(s).

The symmetric_difference() method keeps all items EXCEPT the duplicates.

Union
The union() method returns a new set with all items from both sets.

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Join set1 and set2 into a new set:

set1 = {"a", "b", "c"}

set2 = {1, 2, 3}

set3 = set1.union(set2)
print(set3)

Try it Yourself »

You can use the | operator instead of the union() method, and you will get
the same result.
Example
Use | to join two sets:

set1 = {"a", "b", "c"}

set2 = {1, 2, 3}

set3 = set1 | set2

print(set3)

Try it Yourself »

Join Multiple Sets

All the joining methods and operators can be used to join multiple sets.

When using a method, just add more sets in the parentheses, separated by
commas:

Example
Join multiple sets with the union() method:

set1 = {"a", "b", "c"}

set2 = {1, 2, 3}
set3 = {"John", "Elena"}
set4 = {"apple", "bananas", "cherry"}

myset = set1.union(set2, set3, set4)

print(myset)

Try it Yourself »

When using the | operator, separate the sets with more | operators:

Example
Use | to join two sets:

set1 = {"a", "b", "c"}

set2 = {1, 2, 3}
set3 = {"John", "Elena"}
set4 = {"apple", "bananas", "cherry"}
myset = set1 | set2 | set3 |set4
print(myset)

Try it Yourself »

Join a Set and a Tuple

The union() method allows you to join a set with other data types, like lists or
tuples.

The result will be a set.

Example
Join a set with a tuple:

x = {"a", "b", "c"}

y = (1, 2, 3)

z = x.union(y)
print(z)

Try it Yourself »

Note: The | operator only allows you to join sets with sets, and not with
other data types like you can with the union() method.

Update
The update() method inserts all items from one set into another.

The update() changes the original set, and does not return a new set.

Example
The update() method inserts the items in set2 into set1:

set1 = {"a", "b" , "c"}

set2 = {1, 2, 3}

set1.update(set2)
print(set1)
Try it Yourself »

Note: Both union() and update() will exclude any duplicate items.

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Intersection
Keep ONLY the duplicates

The intersection() method will return a new set, that only contains the items
that are present in both sets.

Example
Join set1 and set2, but keep only the duplicates:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

set3 = set1.intersection(set2)
print(set3)

Try it Yourself »

You can use the & operator instead of the intersection() method, and you will
get the same result.

Example
Use & to join two sets:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

set3 = set1 & set2

print(set3)

Try it Yourself »

Note: The & operator only allows you to join sets with sets, and not with
other data types like you can with the intersection() method.
The intersection_update() method will also keep ONLY the duplicates, but it
will change the original set instead of returning a new set.

Example
Keep the items that exist in both set1, and set2:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

set1.intersection_update(set2)

print(set1)

Try it Yourself »

The values True and 1 are considered the same value. The same goes
for False and 0.

Example
Join sets that contains the values True, False, 1, and 0, and see what is
considered as duplicates:

set1 = {"apple", 1, "banana", 0, "cherry"}

set2 = {False, "google", 1, "apple", 2, True}

set3 = set1.intersection(set2)

print(set3)

Try it Yourself »

Difference
The difference() method will return a new set that will contain only the items
from the first set that are not present in the other set.

Example
Keep all items from set1 that are not in set2:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}
set3 = set1.difference(set2)

print(set3)

Try it Yourself »

You can use the - operator instead of the difference() method, and you will
get the same result.

Example
Use - to join two sets:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

set3 = set1 - set2

print(set3)

Try it Yourself »

Note: The - operator only allows you to join sets with sets, and not with
other data types like you can with the difference() method.

The difference_update() method will also keep the items from the first set
that are not in the other set, but it will change the original set instead of
returning a new set.

Example
Use the difference_update() method to keep the items that are not present in
both sets:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

set1.difference_update(set2)

print(set1)

Try it Yourself »

Symmetric Differences
The symmetric_difference() method will keep only the elements that are NOT
present in both sets.
Example
Keep the items that are not present in both sets:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

set3 = set1.symmetric_difference(set2)

print(set3)

Try it Yourself »

You can use the ^ operator instead of the symmetric_difference() method,

and you will get the same result.

Example
Use ^ to join two sets:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

set3 = set1 ^ set2

print(set3)

Try it Yourself »

Note: The ^ operator only allows you to join sets with sets, and not with
other data types like you can with the symmetric_difference() method.

The symmetric_difference_update() method will also keep all but the

duplicates, but it will change the original set instead of returning a new set.

Example
Use the symmetric_difference_update() method to keep the items that are not
present in both sets:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

set1.symmetric_difference_update(set2)

print(set1)

set = {"apple", "banana", "cherry" , "kiwi" , "orange" , "apple"}

print(set)
print (len(set))

print (type(set))

print ("END")

for x in set:

print (x)

print ("End2")

print ("kiwi" in set)

print ("apple" not in set)

set.add("Iron")

print (set)

print ("E3")

set2= { "1" , "4" , "6" , "8"}

set.update(set2)

print (set)

print ("44444444444444444444444444")

set3= [ "11111111" , "22222" , "3333333" , "44444444"]

set2.update(set3)

print (set2)

set2.remove("11111111")

print (set2)

print ("E5555555555")

set2.discard("44444444")

print (set2)
set2.pop()

set2.pop()

print (set2)

for x in set2:

print (x)

print("RRRRRRRRRRRRR")

set4= set2.union(set3)

print (set4)#

print("dddddddd")

set4= set2.intersection(set3)

print (set4)

Python - Set Methods

Set Methods

Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on sets.

MethodShortcut Description
add() Adds an element to the set

clear() Removes all the elements from the set

copy() Returns a copy of the set

difference() - Returns a set containing the difference between two or more sets

difference_update() -= Removes the items in this set that are also included in another,
specified set

discard() Remove the specified item

intersection() & Returns a set, that is the intersection of two other sets

intersection_update() &= Removes the items in this set that are not present in other, specified
set(s)

isdisjoint() Returns whether two sets have a intersection or not

issubset() <= Returns whether another set contains this set or not

< Returns whether all items in this set is present in other, specified set(s)

issuperset() >= Returns whether this set contains another set or not

> Returns whether all items in other, specified set(s) is present in this set

pop() Removes an element from the set

remove() Removes the specified element

symmetric_difference() ^ Returns a set with the symmetric differences of two sets

symmetric_difference_update() ^= Inserts the symmetric differences from this set and another

union() | Return a set containing the union of sets

update() |= Update the set with the union of this set and others
Python Dictionaries
❮ PreviousNext ❯

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

Dictionary
Dictionaries are used to store data values in key:value pairs.

A dictionary is a collection which is ordered*, changeable and do not allow

duplicates.

As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier,
dictionaries are unordered.

Dictionaries are written with curly brackets, and have keys and values:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Create and print a dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict)

Try it Yourself »

Dictionary Items
Dictionary items are ordered, changeable, and do not allow duplicates.

Dictionary items are presented in key:value pairs, and can be referred to by

using the key name.

Example
Print the "brand" value of the dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict["brand"])

Try it Yourself »

Ordered or Unordered?
As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier,
dictionaries are unordered.

When we say that dictionaries are ordered, it means that the items have a
defined order, and that order will not change.

Unordered means that the items do not have a defined order, you cannot
refer to an item by using an index.

Changeable
Dictionaries are changeable, meaning that we can change, add or remove
items after the dictionary has been created.

Duplicates Not Allowed

Dictionaries cannot have two items with the same key:
Example
Duplicate values will overwrite existing values:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964,
"year": 2020
}
print(thisdict)

Try it Yourself »

Dictionary Length
To determine how many items a dictionary has, use the len() function:

Example
Print the number of items in the dictionary:

print(len(thisdict))

Try it Yourself »

Dictionary Items - Data Types

The values in dictionary items can be of any data type:

Example
String, int, boolean, and list data types:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"electric": False,
"year": 1964,
"colors": ["red", "white", "blue"]
}
Try it Yourself »

type()
From Python's perspective, dictionaries are defined as objects with the data
type 'dict':

<class 'dict'>

Example
Print the data type of a dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(type(thisdict))

Try it Yourself »

The dict() Constructor

It is also possible to use the dict() constructor to make a dictionary.

Example
Using the dict() method to make a dictionary:

thisdict = dict(name = "John", age = 36, country = "Norway")

print(thisdict)

Try it Yourself »

Python Collections (Arrays)

There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:
  List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate
members.
 Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows
duplicate members.
 Set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed.
No duplicate members.
 Dictionary is a collection which is ordered** and changeable. No
duplicate members.

*Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove and/or add items
whenever you like.

**As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier,
dictionaries are unordered.

When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of

that type. Choosing the right type for a particular data set could mean
retention of meaning, and, it could mean an increase in efficiency or security.

Python - Access
Dictionary Items
❮ PreviousNext ❯

Accessing Items
You can access the items of a dictionary by referring to its key name, inside
square brackets:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Get the value of the "model" key:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = thisdict["model"]

Try it Yourself »
There is also a method called get() that will give you the same result:

Example
Get the value of the "model" key:

x = thisdict.get("model")

Try it Yourself »

Get Keys
The keys() method will return a list of all the keys in the dictionary.

Example
Get a list of the keys:

x = thisdict.keys()

Try it Yourself »

The list of the keys is a view of the dictionary, meaning that any changes
done to the dictionary will be reflected in the keys list.

Example
Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the keys list gets
updated as well:

car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.keys()

print(x) #before the change

car["color"] = "white"

print(x) #after the change

Try it Yourself »

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Get Values
The values() method will return a list of all the values in the dictionary.

Example
Get a list of the values:

x = thisdict.values()

Try it Yourself »

The list of the values is a view of the dictionary, meaning that any changes
done to the dictionary will be reflected in the values list.

Example
Make a change in the original dictionary, and see that the values list gets
updated as well:

car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.values()

print(x) #before the change

car["year"] = 2020

print(x) #after the change

Try it Yourself »
Example
Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the values list gets
updated as well:

car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.values()

print(x) #before the change

car["color"] = "red"

print(x) #after the change

Try it Yourself »

Get Items
The items() method will return each item in a dictionary, as tuples in a list.

Example
Get a list of the key:value pairs

x = thisdict.items()

Try it Yourself »

The returned list is a view of the items of the dictionary, meaning that any
changes done to the dictionary will be reflected in the items list.

Example
Make a change in the original dictionary, and see that the items list gets
updated as well:

car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.items()

print(x) #before the change

car["year"] = 2020

print(x) #after the change

Try it Yourself »

Example
Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the items list gets
updated as well:

car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.items()

print(x) #before the change

car["color"] = "red"

print(x) #after the change

Try it Yourself »

Check if Key Exists

To determine if a specified key is present in a dictionary use the in keyword:

Example
Check if "model" is present in the dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
if "model" in thisdict:
print("Yes, 'model' is one of the keys in the thisdict
dictionary")

Try it Yourself »

Python - Access
Dictionary Items
❮ PreviousNext ❯

Accessing Items
You can access the items of a dictionary by referring to its key name, inside
square brackets:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Get the value of the "model" key:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = thisdict["model"]

Try it Yourself »

There is also a method called get() that will give you the same result:

Example
Get the value of the "model" key:

x = thisdict.get("model")

Try it Yourself »
Get Keys
The keys() method will return a list of all the keys in the dictionary.

Example
Get a list of the keys:

x = thisdict.keys()

Try it Yourself »

The list of the keys is a view of the dictionary, meaning that any changes
done to the dictionary will be reflected in the keys list.

Example
Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the keys list gets
updated as well:

car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.keys()

print(x) #before the change

car["color"] = "white"

print(x) #after the change

Try it Yourself »

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Get Values
The values() method will return a list of all the values in the dictionary.

Example
Get a list of the values:

x = thisdict.values()

Try it Yourself »

The list of the values is a view of the dictionary, meaning that any changes
done to the dictionary will be reflected in the values list.

Example
Make a change in the original dictionary, and see that the values list gets
updated as well:

car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.values()

print(x) #before the change

car["year"] = 2020

print(x) #after the change

Try it Yourself »

Example
Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the values list gets
updated as well:

car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.values()

print(x) #before the change

car["color"] = "red"

print(x) #after the change

Try it Yourself »

Get Items
The items() method will return each item in a dictionary, as tuples in a list.

Example
Get a list of the key:value pairs

x = thisdict.items()

Try it Yourself »

The returned list is a view of the items of the dictionary, meaning that any
changes done to the dictionary will be reflected in the items list.

Example
Make a change in the original dictionary, and see that the items list gets
updated as well:

car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.items()

print(x) #before the change

car["year"] = 2020

print(x) #after the change

Try it Yourself »

Example
Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the items list gets
updated as well:
car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.items()

print(x) #before the change

car["color"] = "red"

print(x) #after the change

Try it Yourself »

Check if Key Exists

To determine if a specified key is present in a dictionary use the in keyword:

Example
Check if "model" is present in the dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
if "model" in thisdict:
print("Yes, 'model' is one of the keys in the thisdict
dictionary")

Try it Yourself »

Python - Change
Dictionary Items
❮ PreviousNext ❯
Change Values
You can change the value of a specific item by referring to its key name:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Change the "year" to 2018:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["year"] = 2018

Try it Yourself »

Update Dictionary
The update() method will update the dictionary with the items from the given
argument.

The argument must be a dictionary, or an iterable object with key:value pairs.

Example
Update the "year" of the car by using the update() method:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.update({"year": 2020})
Python - Add Dictionary
Items
❮ PreviousNext ❯

Adding Items
Adding an item to the dictionary is done by using a new index key and
assigning a value to it:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["color"] = "red"
print(thisdict)

Try it Yourself »

Update Dictionary
The update() method will update the dictionary with the items from a given
argument. If the item does not exist, the item will be added.

The argument must be a dictionary, or an iterable object with key:value pairs.

Example
Add a color item to the dictionary by using the update() method:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.update({"color": "red"})

Try it Yourself »

Python - Remove
Dictionary Items
❮ PreviousNext ❯

Removing Items
There are several methods to remove items from a dictionary:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

The pop() method removes the item with the specified key name:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.pop("model")
print(thisdict)

Try it Yourself »

Example
The popitem() method removes the last inserted item (in versions before 3.7,
a random item is removed instead):

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.popitem()
print(thisdict)

Try it Yourself »
Example
The del keyword removes the item with the specified key name:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del thisdict["model"]
print(thisdict)

Try it Yourself »

Example
The del keyword can also delete the dictionary completely:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del thisdict
print(thisdict) #this will cause an error because "thisdict" no
longer exists.

Try it Yourself »

Example
The clear() method empties the dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.clear()
print(thisdict)
dict = {

"brand": "Ford",

"model": "Mustang",

"year": 1964,

"Color":["red", "white", "black"]

}

print(dict)

print(3142144)

print (dict["brand"])

print (len(dict))

print (dict["Color"])

print(type(dict))

print("End96")

y= dict.get("brand")

print (y)

p= dict.keys()

print (p)

dict["use"] = "used"

print (dict)

m=dict.values()

print (m)

b=dict.items()

print(b)

if "brand" in dict:

print ("yes it is avialable")

dict["year"]= 2022

print (dict)

dict.update({"year" : 2000})

dict.pop("model")
print (dict)

for x in dict:

print (x)

print("23456")

for e in dict:

print (dict[e])

print("zana")

for g in dict.values():

print (g)

print ("aberdeen")

for l, o in dict.items():

print (l,o)

nd= dict.copy()

print

Python - Copy
Dictionaries
❮ PreviousNext ❯
Copy a Dictionary
You cannot copy a dictionary simply by typing dict2 = dict1,
because: dict2 will only be a reference to dict1, and changes made
in dict1 will automatically also be made in dict2.

There are ways to make a copy, one way is to use the built-in Dictionary
method copy().

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Make a copy of a dictionary with the copy() method:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
mydict = thisdict.copy()
print(mydict)

Try it Yourself »

Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in function dict().

Example
Make a copy of a dictionary with the dict() function:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
mydict = dict(thisdict)
print(mydict)

Python - Nested
Dictionaries
❮ PreviousNext ❯
Nested Dictionaries
A dictionary can contain dictionaries, this is called nested dictionaries.

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Create a dictionary that contain three dictionaries:

myfamily = {
"child1" : {
"name" : "Emil",
"year" : 2004
},
"child2" : {
"name" : "Tobias",
"year" : 2007
},
"child3" : {
"name" : "Linus",
"year" : 2011
}
}

Try it Yourself »

Or, if you want to add three dictionaries into a new dictionary:

Example
Create three dictionaries, then create one dictionary that will contain the
other three dictionaries:

child1 = {
"name" : "Emil",
"year" : 2004
}
child2 = {
"name" : "Tobias",
"year" : 2007
}
child3 = {
"name" : "Linus",
"year" : 2011
}

myfamily = {
"child1" : child1,
 "child2" : child2,
"child3" : child3
}

Try it Yourself »

Access Items in Nested Dictionaries

To access items from a nested dictionary, you use the name of the
dictionaries, starting with the outer dictionary:

Example
Print the name of child 2:

print(myfamily["child2"]["name"])

Try it Yourself »

Loop Through Nested Dictionaries

You can loop through a dictionary by using the items() method like this:

Example
Loop through the keys and values of all nested dictionaries:

for x, obj in myfamily.items():

print(x)

for y in obj:
print(y + ':', obj[y])

Python Dictionary
Methods
❮ PreviousNext ❯
Dictionary Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on dictionaries.

Method Description

clear() Removes all the elements from the dictionary

copy() Returns a copy of the dictionary

fromkeys() Returns a dictionary with the specified keys and value

get() Returns the value of the specified key

items() Returns a list containing a tuple for each key value pair

keys() Returns a list containing the dictionary's keys

pop() Removes the element with the specified key

popitem() Removes the last inserted key-value pair

setdefault() Returns the value of the specified key. If the key does not exist: insert
 update() Updates the dictionary with the specified key-value pairs

values() Returns a list of all the values in the dictionary

Python Conditions and If statements

Python supports the usual logical conditions from mathematics:

 Equals: a == b

 Not Equals: a != b

 Less than: a < b

 Less than or equal to: a <= b

 Greater than: a > b

 Greater than or equal to: a >= b

These conditions can be used in several ways, most commonly in "if statements" and loops.

An "if statement" is written by using the if keyword.

ExampleGet your own Python Server

If statement:

a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
Try it Yourself »

In this example we use two variables, a and b, which are used as part of the if statement to test
whether b is greater than a. As a is 33, and b is 200, we know that 200 is greater than 33, and so we
print to screen that "b is greater than a".

Indentation

Python relies on indentation (whitespace at the beginning of a line) to define scope in the code.
Other programming languages often use curly-brackets for this purpose.

Example

If statement, without indentation (will raise an error):

a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a") # you will get an error

Try it Yourself »

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Elif

The elif keyword is Python's way of saying "if the previous conditions were not true, then try this
condition".

Example

a = 33
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")

Try it Yourself »

In this example a is equal to b, so the first condition is not true, but the elif condition is true, so we
print to screen that "a and b are equal".

Else

The else keyword catches anything which isn't caught by the preceding conditions.
Example

a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")
else:
print("a is greater than b")

Try it Yourself »

In this example a is greater than b, so the first condition is not true, also the elif condition is not true,
so we go to the else condition and print to screen that "a is greater than b".

You can also have an else without the elif:

Example

a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
else:
print("b is not greater than a")

Try it Yourself »

Short Hand If

If you have only one statement to execute, you can put it on the same line as the if statement.

Example

One line if statement:

if a > b: print("a is greater than b")

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Short Hand If ... Else

If you have only one statement to execute, one for if, and one for else, you can put it all on the same
line:

Example

One line if else statement:

a=2
b = 330
print("A") if a > b else print("B")

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This technique is known as Ternary Operators, or Conditional Expressions.

You can also have multiple else statements on the same line:

Example

One line if else statement, with 3 conditions:

a = 330
b = 330
print("A") if a > b else print("=") if a == b else print("B")

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And

The and keyword is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional statements:

Example

Test if a is greater than b, AND if c is greater than a:

a = 200
b = 33
c = 500
if a > b and c > a:
print("Both conditions are True")

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Or

The or keyword is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional statements:

Example

Test if a is greater than b, OR if a is greater than c:

a = 200
b = 33
c = 500
if a > b or a > c:
print("At least one of the conditions is True")

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Not

The not keyword is a logical operator, and is used to reverse the result of the conditional statement:

Example

Test if a is NOT greater than b:

a = 33
b = 200
if not a > b:
print("a is NOT greater than b")

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Nested If

You can have if statements inside if statements, this is called nested if statements.

Example

x = 41

if x > 10:
print("Above ten,")
if x > 20:
print("and also above 20!")
else:
print("but not above 20.")

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The pass Statement

if statements cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have an if statement with no content, put
in the pass statement to avoid getting an error.

Example

a = 33
b = 200

if b > a:
pass

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a = 33

b=2

c= 44

if b > a:

print("b is greater than a")

elif a == b:

print ("equal")

else:

print ("a is greater than b")

if a > b and c > b:

print ("Both true")

if a > b or c < b:

print ("Both not true")

if not a > c:

print ("a not greater c ")

print ("END")

i=4

while i < 10:

print (i)

i=i+1

i=1

while i < 6:

print(i)

if (i == 3):

break
 i += 1

print ("END2")

i=0

while i < 6:

i += 1

if i == 3:

continue

print(i)

Python For Loops

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Python For Loops

A for loop is used for iterating over a sequence (that is either a list, a tuple, a dictionary, a set, or a
string).

This is less like the for keyword in other programming languages, and works more like an iterator
method as found in other object-orientated programming languages.

With the for loop we can execute a set of statements, once for each item in a list, tuple, set etc.

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Print each fruit in a fruit list:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
print(x)

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The for loop does not require an indexing variable to set beforehand.
Looping Through a String

Even strings are iterable objects, they contain a sequence of characters:

Example

Loop through the letters in the word "banana":

for x in "banana":
print(x)

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The break Statement

With the break statement we can stop the loop before it has looped through all the items:

Example

Exit the loop when x is "banana":

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
print(x)
if x == "banana":
break

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Example

Exit the loop when x is "banana", but this time the break comes before the print:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
break
print(x)

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The continue Statement

With the continue statement we can stop the current iteration of the loop, and continue with the
next:

Example
Do not print banana:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
continue
print(x)

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The range() Function

To loop through a set of code a specified number of times, we can use the range() function,

The range() function returns a sequence of numbers, starting from 0 by default, and increments by 1
(by default), and ends at a specified number.

Example

Using the range() function:

for x in range(6):
print(x)

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Note that range(6) is not the values of 0 to 6, but the values 0 to 5.

The range() function defaults to 0 as a starting value, however it is possible to specify the starting
value by adding a parameter: range(2, 6), which means values from 2 to 6 (but not including 6):

Example

Using the start parameter:

for x in range(2, 6):

print(x)

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The range() function defaults to increment the sequence by 1, however it is possible to specify the
increment value by adding a third parameter: range(2, 30, 3):

Example

Increment the sequence with 3 (default is 1):

for x in range(2, 30, 3):

print(x)

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Else in For Loop

The else keyword in a for loop specifies a block of code to be executed when the loop is finished:

Example

Print all numbers from 0 to 5, and print a message when the loop has ended:

for x in range(6):
print(x)
else:
print("Finally finished!")

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Note: The else block will NOT be executed if the loop is stopped by a break statement.

Example

Break the loop when x is 3, and see what happens with the else block:

for x in range(6):
if x == 3: break
print(x)
else:
print("Finally finished!")

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Nested Loops

A nested loop is a loop inside a loop.

The "inner loop" will be executed one time for each iteration of the "outer loop":

Example

Print each adjective for every fruit:

adj = ["red", "big", "tasty"]

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in adj:
for y in fruits:
print(x, y)

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The pass Statement

for loops cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have a for loop with no content, put in
the pass statement to avoid getting an error.

Example
for x in [0, 1, 2]:
pass

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange"]

cars = ["Opel" , "Ford" , "BMW" , "Marcedes"]

for x in

for c in fruits:

print(c)

for x in "banana":

print (x)

for x in fruits:

print (x)

if x == "banana":

break

for x in range (5, 30, 5):

print (x)

print ("Finished")

for x in range (7):

print (x)

else:

print ("Finished")

Python Functions

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A function is a block of code which only runs when it is called.

You can pass data, known as parameters, into a function.

A function can return data as a result.

Creating a Function

In Python a function is defined using the def keyword:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")

Calling a Function

To call a function, use the function name followed by parenthesis:

Example

def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")

my_function()

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Arguments

Information can be passed into functions as arguments.

Arguments are specified after the function name, inside the parentheses. You can add as many
arguments as you want, just separate them with a comma.

The following example has a function with one argument (fname). When the function is called, we
pass along a first name, which is used inside the function to print the full name:

Example

def my_function(fname):
print(fname + " Refsnes")

my_function("Emil")
my_function("Tobias")
my_function("Linus")

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Python Lambda

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A lambda function is a small anonymous function.

A lambda function can take any number of arguments, but can only have one expression.

Syntax

lambda arguments : expression

The expression is executed and the result is returned:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Add 10 to argument a, and return the result:

x = lambda a : a + 10
print(x(5))

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Lambda functions can take any number of arguments:

Example

Multiply argument a with argument b and return the result:

x = lambda a, b : a * b
print(x(5, 6))

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Example

Summarize argument a, b, and c and return the result:

x = lambda a, b, c : a + b + c
print(x(5, 6, 2))

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Why Use Lambda Functions?

The power of lambda is better shown when you use them as an anonymous function inside another
function.

Say you have a function definition that takes one argument, and that argument will be multiplied
with an unknown number:

def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n
Use that function definition to make a function that always doubles the number you send in:

Example

def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

mydoubler = myfunc(2)

print(mydoubler(11))

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Or, use the same function definition to make a function that always triples the number you send in:

Example

def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

mytripler = myfunc(3)

print(mytripler(11))

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Or, use the same function definition to make both functions, in the same program:

Example

def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

mydoubler = myfunc(2)
mytripler = myfunc(3)

print(mydoubler(11))
print(mytripler(11))

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Use lambda functions when an anonymous function is required for a short period of time.
Array Methods

Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists/arrays.

Method Description

append() Adds an element at the end of the list

clear() Removes all the elements from the list

copy() Returns a copy of the list

count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value

extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the current list

index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value

insert() Adds an element at the specified position

 pop() Removes the element at the specified position

remove() Removes the first item with the specified value

reverse() Reverses the order of the list

sort() Sorts the list

cars = ["Ford", "Volvo", "BMW", "opel"]

x = cars[0]

print(x)

cars[2] = "Toyota"

print (len(cars))

print (cars)

for x in cars:

print (x)

cars.append("honda")

print (cars)