NORTHERN TECHNICAL COLLEGE MANAGEMENT BOARD

LECTURER: Kakonkanya M COURSE: Electrical Diploma 1

Subject: Instrumentation Topic: functions of instruments and

Objective(s) At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

1. State the functions of instruments and measuring systems correctly

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FUNCTIONS OF INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

1.1 Introduction

Dairy processing unit operations mainly involve heating, cooling, separating, drying or freezing of the products.
These unit operations are carried out under varying conditions of temperatures, pressures, flows and physical
compositions. The measurement and control of these variable factors at the various stages of processing call for
the accurate and efficient instruments, in addition to the dependence upon human skills. With the advent of large
scale milk handling plants the automatic operation and control through efficient instrumentation and automation
has become even more necessary. Utilities such as steam, water, electricity air, fuel etc. have to be measured and
controlled at appropriate points in the plant. Automatic control instruments are employed to measure and control
the temperature, pressure, flow and level of these utilities. The overall aim of the instrumentation/ automation is to
improve the product quality and enhance the plant efficiency for better economic returns.

1.2 Variable

A characteristic number or quantity that increases or decreases over time, or takes different values in different
situations is known as Variable. It is a factor that can be assigned a measurable dimension of some kind that
varies, e.g., length, diameter, area, flow, weight, cost or life-span etc. A dependent variable is any measurable
factor whose behaviour is controlled by another variable. An independent variable is any measurable factor that
produces change or reaction in another variable. A variable is something that is changed or altered in an
experiment. In processing of food products the variables involved could be temperature and pressure of steam,
processing time, flow rate of various streams etc. For example, to determine the effect of temperature and
humidity on storage of a food product will provide evidence on the shelf life of product in different storage

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conditions. Variable is liable to change, may have a range of possible values and is liable to deviate from an
established extension type.

1.3 Measurement

When we decide to study a variable we need to devise some way to measure it. Some variables are easy to
measure and others are very difficult. The values of variables are made meaningful by quantifying them into
specific units. For example, instead of saying that a particular fluid is hot, we can specify a measurement and
specify that the fluid is having a temperature of 80°C.

Measurement is collection of quantitative data. A measurement is made by comparing a quantity with a standard
unit. An example of measurement means the use of a ruler to determine the length of a piece of paper.

Measurement is thus essentially an act or the result of comparison between the quantity (whose magnitude is
unknown) and a predefined standard. Since both the quantities are compared, the result is expressed in numerical
values. In the physical sciences, quality assurance, and engineering, measurement is the activity of obtaining and
comparing physical quantities of real-world objects and events. Established standard objects and events are used
as units, and the process of measurement gives a number relating the item under study and the referenced unit of
measurement.
There are two essential requirements of the measurements, in order to make the results meaningful;
(i) The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately defined and should be commonly
accepted.
(ii) The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable.

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Measurement system in brief

Instrumentation Systems
The purpose of an instrumentation system used for making measurements is to give the user a numerical value
corresponding to the variable being measured. Thus a thermometer may be used to give a numerical value for the
temperature of a liquid. We must, however, recognise that, for a variety of reasons, this numerical value may not
actually be the true value of the variable. Thus, in the case of the thermometer, there may be errors due to the
limited accuracy in the scale calibration, or reading errors due to the reading falling between two scale markings,
or perhaps errors due to the insertion of a cold thermometer into a hot liquid, lowering the temperature of the
liquid and so altering the temperature being measured. We thus consider a measurement system to have an input
of the true value of the variable being measured and an output of the measured value of that variable the figures
below shows some examples of instrument measuring systems.

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An instrumentation system for making measurements has an input of the true value of the variable being
measured and an output of the measured value. This output might be then used in a control system to control the
variable to some set value.

1.4 Unit of Measurement

A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a physical quantity, defined and adopted by convention and or by
law, that is used as a standard for measurement of the same physical quantity. Any other value of the physical
quantity can be expressed as a simple multiple of the unit of measurement. For example, length is a physical
quantity. The metre is a unit of length that represents a definite predetermined length. When we say 10 metres (or
10 m), we actually mean 10 times the definite predetermined length called "metre".

The definition, agreement, and practical use of units of measurement have played a crucial role in
human endeavour from early ages up to this day. Different systems of units used to be very common. Now there is
a global standard, the International System of Units (SI), the modern form of the metric system.

The International System of Units (abbreviated as SI from the French language name System International d'Units)
is the modern revision of the metric system. It is the world's most widely used system of units, both in everyday
commerce and in science. The SI was developed in 1960 from the metre-kilogram-second (MKS) system, rather
than the centimeter-gram-second (CGS) system, which, in turn, had many variants. During its development the SI

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also introduced several newly named units that were previously not a part of the metric system. The original SI
units for the six basic physical quantities were:

i. metre (m) : SI unit of length

The mole was subsequently added to this list and the degree Kelvin renamed the kelvin.

There are two types of SI units, base units and derived units. Base units are the simple measurements for time,
length, mass, temperature, and amount of substance, electric current and light intensity. Derived units are
constructed from the base units, for example, the watt, i.e. the unit for power, is defined from the base units as
m2/kg/s−3. Other physical properties may be measured in compound units, such as material density, measured in
kg/m3.

1.5 Significance of Measurements

Science is based on objective observation of the changes in variables. The greater our precision of measurement
the greater can be our confidence in our observations. Also, measurements are always less than perfect, i.e., there
are errors in them. The more we know about the sources of errors in our measurements the less likely we will be to
draw erroneous conclusions. With the progress in science and technology, new phenomena and relationships are
constantly being discovered and these advancements require newer developments in measurement systems. Any
invention is not of any practical utility unless it is backed by actual measurements. The measurements thus
confirm the validity of a given hypothesis and also add to its understanding. This is a continuous chain that leads
to new discoveries with new and more sophisticated measurement techniques. While elementary measurements

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require only ordinary methods of measurement, the advanced measurements are associated with sophisticated
methods of measurement. The advancement of Science and Technology is therefore dependent upon a parallel
progress in measurement techniques. It can be safely be said that, the progress in Science and Technology of any
country could be assessed by the way in which the data is acquired by measurements and is processed.

In R&D applications the design of equipments and processes require the basic engineering design data on the
properties of the input raw materials and processed products. The operation and maintenance of equipments for
optimal processing variables to achieve best quality product and energy efficient equipment utilization require the
monitoring and control of several process variables. Both these functions require measurements. The economical
design, operation and maintenance require a feedback of information. This information is supplied by appropriate
measurement systems.

1.6 Function of Instrumentals and Measurement Systems

The measurement systems and the instruments may be classified based upon the functions they perform. There
are four main functions performed by them: indicating, signal processing, recording and control.

i. Indicating Function: This function includes supplying information concerning the variable quantity
under measurement. Several types of methods could be employed in the instruments and systems for this
purpose. Most of the time, this information is obtained as the deflection of a pointer of a measuring
instrument.
ii. Recording Function: In many cases the instrument makes a written record, usually on paper, of the
value of the quantity under measurement against time or against some other variable. This is a recording

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 function performed by the instrument. For example, a temperature indicator / recorder in the HTST
pasteurizer gives the instantaneous temperatures on a strip chart recorder.
iii. Signal Processing: This function is performed to process and modify the measured signal to facilitate
recording / control.
iv. Controlling Function: This is one of the most important functions, especially in the food processing
industries where the processing operations are required to be precisely controlled. In this case, the
information is used by the instrument or the systems to control the original measured variable or
quantity.

Thus, based on the above functions, there are three main groups of instruments. The largest group has the
indicating function. Next in line is the group of instruments which have both indicating and or recording functions.
The last group falls into a special category and perform all the three functions, i.e., indicating, recording and
controlling.

In this lesson only those instruments would be discussed whose functions are mainly indicating and recording,
especially those instruments which are used for engineering analysis purposes.

1.7 Basic Requirements of a Measurement System / Instrument

The following are the basic requirements of a good quality measurement system / instrument:
a) Ruggedness
b) Linearity
c) No hysteresis
d) Repeatability
e) High output signal quality

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 f) High reliability and stability
g) Good dynamic response

1.8 Applications of Measurement Systems

Before discussing the instrument characteristics, construction and working, it is pertinent to understand the
various ways in which the measuring instruments are put in use. Different applications of the instruments and
measurement systems are:

i. Monitoring a process/operation
ii. Control a process/operation
iii. Experimental engineering analysis

i. Monitoring a Process/Operation

There are several applications of measuring instruments that mainly have a function of monitoring a process
parameter. They simply indicate the value or condition of parameter under study and these readings do not
provide any control operation. For example, a speedometer in a car indicates the speed of the car at a given
moment, an ammeter or a voltmeter indicates the value of current or voltage being monitored at a particular
instant. Similarly, water and electric energy meters installed in homes and industries provide the information
on the commodity used so that its cost could be computed and realized from the user.

ii. Control a Process/Operation

Another application of instruments is in automatic control systems. Measurement of a variable and its
control are closely associated. To control a process variable, e.g., temperature, pressure or humidity etc.,
the prerequisite is that it is accurately measured at any given instant and at the desired location. Same is

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 true for all other process parameters such as position, level, velocity and flow, etc. and the servo-systems
for these parameters. Let us assume that the output variable to be controlled is non-electrical quantity and
the control action is through electrical means. Since the output variable is a non-electrical quantity, it is
converted into a corresponding electrical form by a transducer connected in the feedback loop. The input to
the controller is reference which corresponds to the desired value of the process parameter. The output
process variable is compared with the reference or desired value with the help of a comparator. In case the
desired value and the process variable differ, there is a resultant error signal. This error signal is amplified
and then fed to an actuator, which produces power to drive the controlled circuitry. The corrective action
goes on till the output is at the same level as the input which corresponds to the desired output. At this
stage, there is no error signal and hence there is no input to the actuator and the control action stops.
Common examples of this application are the domestic appliances, such as, refrigerator, air conditioner or a
hot air oven. All of these employ a thermostatic control. A temperature measuring device (often a bimetallic
element) measures the temperature in the room, refrigerated chamber or in the oven and provides the
information necessary for appropriate functioning of the control system in these appliances.

iii. Experimental Engineering Analysis

Experimental engineering analysis is carried out to find out solution of the engineering problems. These
problems may be theoretical designs or practical analysis. The exact experimental method for engineering
analysis will depend upon the nature of the problem. The analysis could be grouped into following categories:

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 1. Obtaining solutions of mathematical relationships with the help of analogies.
2. Formulating the generalized empirical relationships in the cases where no proper theoretical backing
exists.
3. Testing the validity of theoretical predications.
4. Generating the basic engineering design data on the properties of the input raw materials and
processed products for R&D application.
5. Design of process equipments for specific applications.
6. Optimization of machine / system parameters, variables and performance indices.

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