ELEG/CPEG 480 - CAPSTONE II

American University of Kuwait

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Spring 2019

Prediction of Electrical Arc and

Fire Prevention in Electrical Systems

Project Supervisor
Prof. Amjad Hussain

Project Members
Al-Kunouz Bohaimed S00034342 CPEG
Nasser Dashti S00003204 ELEG
Tariq Al-Haji S00031371 ELEG
Wasmeia Al-Rashidi S00035551 ELEG
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Contents

Table of Figures ..................................................................................................................... 5

Table of Tables ...................................................................................................................... 7

Abstract .................................................................................................................................. 8

Chapter: 1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 9

1.1 Problem Statement ...................................................................................................... 10
1.2 Solution ....................................................................................................................... 11
1.3 Idea of Development ................................................................................................... 11
1.4 Goals ........................................................................................................................... 12
1.5 Objectives ................................................................................................................... 12
1.6 SWOT Analysis .......................................................................................................... 12
1.7 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 14

Chapter 2: Literature Review .............................................................................................. 15

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 16
2.2 Literature Survey ........................................................................................................ 16
2.2.1 Value of Insulated Bus Bars in Reducing Arcing Fault Duration in Low-
Voltage System .................................................................................................. 16
2.2.2 Analysis of Low Voltage Arcing Characteristic on Direct Short Circuit
Through Arcing Thermal Synchronization Sensing and Short Circuit Current . 17
2.2.3 Evaluation of LV and MV Arc parameters ......................................................... 17
2.2.4 Detection of Arc Fault on Low Voltage Power Circuits in Time and
Frequency Domain Approach ............................................................................. 18
2.2.5 The arc-fault circuit interrupter, an emerging product ....................................... 18
2.2.6 Arc Fault Detection and Discrimination Methods ............................................. 18
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2.2.7 More about arc-fault circuit interrupters ............................................................. 19

2.2.8 Method for On-line Detection of Arcing in LV Distribution Systems ............... 19
2.2.9 Design of Arc Fault Detection Circuit in Low Voltage Switchboard ................. 20
2.2.10 The Historical Evolution of Arcing-Fault Models for LV Systems ................. 20
2.2.11 Arc fault detection apparatus and circuit breaker incorporating same ............. 21
2.2.12 Arc Fault Detector and Method ....................................................................... 21
2.2.13 Simulation of Fault Arc Using Conventional Arc Models .............................. 21
2.3 Comparative Analysis ............................................................................................ 21
2.3.1 Arc Fault Behavior ............................................................................................. 22
2.3.2 Arc Fault Detection Methods ............................................................................. 23
2.3.3 Mathematical Equations and Models ................................................................. 23
2.3.4 Software Comparison ......................................................................................... 24
2.4 Summary ............................................................................................................... 24

Chapter 3: Design and Analysis ........................................................................................... 25

3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 26
3.2 System Architecture ..................................................................................................... 26
3.3 Arc Fault Modeling ..................................................................................................... 27
3.3.1 Subtypes of Arc Faults ........................................................................................ 27
3.3.1.1 Series Arc Faults ........................................................................................ 27
3.3.1.2 Parallel Arc Faults...................................................................................... 28
3.3.1.3 Chosen Arc Fault Type for This Project ................................................... 28
3.3.2 Types of Arc Fault Models ................................................................................. 28
3.3.2.1 Cassie Arc Model ...................................................................................... 29
3.3.2.2 Mayr’s Arc Model ..................................................................................... 30
3.3.2.3 Schwarz Arc Model .................................................................................. 30
3.3.2.4 Habedank’s Arc Model .............................................................................. 31
3.3.2.5 Schavemaker’s Arc Model ........................................................................ 31
3.3.2.6 Chosen Arc Model for This Project ........................................................... 32
3.3.3 Practical Arc Model ........................................................................................... 34
3.3.3.1 Practical Arc Model by Copper-Graphite Electrodes ............................... 34
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3.3.3.2 Arcing Model via Function Generator ...................................................... 35

3.3.3.3 Chosen Arcing Generator ......................................................................... 35
3.4 Main Subsystems ........................................................................................................ 36
3.4.1 Actuator and Circuit Breaker ....................................................................... 36
3.4.2 Current Generator ........................................................................................ 37
3.4.3 Zero-Crossing Detection .............................................................................. 37
3.4.3.1 Modeling and Simulation of Zero-Crossing Detector .............................. 38
3.4.3.2 Design of the Zero-Crossing Detector ...................................................... 39
3.4.4 Current Amplifier ............................................................................................... 40
3.4.5 Filter and Minimum Detection ........................................................................... 41
3.4.5.1 Modeling and Simulation of Filter and Minimum Detection ................... 41
3.4.5.2 Design of Filter and Minimum Detection Device ..................................... 44
3.4.5.3 Reducing the Power of the Line Before Entering Filtering Stage ............. 52
3.4.6 Microcontroller .................................................................................................. 52
3.4.6.1 Arduino Uno ............................................................................................. 52
3.4.6.2 Arduino Due .............................................................................................. 54
3.4.6.3 Arduino Mega ........................................................................................... 54
3.4.6.4 Arduino Nano ............................................................................................ 55
3.4.6.5 Chosen Microcontroller ............................................................................ 56
3.5 Other Considerations ............................................................................................ 58
3.5.1 Arc Fault Detection Using Temperature, Light, and Pressure Sensors ........ 58
3.6 Budget ......................................................................................................................... 58
3.7 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 60
Chapter 4: Implementation .................................................................................................. 61
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 62
4.2 Zero-Crossing Detection Circuit ................................................................................. 62
4.3 Butterworth Filter Circuit ........................................................................................... 65
4.4 Minimum Detection Circuit ........................................................................................ 66
4.5 Microcontroller Coding .............................................................................................. 72
4.6 Testing the Complete Prototype .................................................................................. 73
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Chapter 5: Evaluation .......................................................................................................... 75

5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 76
5.2 Meeting Objectives ..................................................................................................... 76
5.3 Ethical Evaluation ........................................................................................................ 78
5.4 Economic Evaluation ................................................................................................... 79
5.5 Social Evaluation ........................................................................................................ 79
5.6 Marketing Evaluation................................................................................................... 79
5.7 Survey .......................................................................................................................... 80
5.8 Summary ...................................................................................................................... 87

Chapter 6: Conclusions & Future Work ............................................................................ 88

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 89
6.2 Evaluation of Objectives ............................................................................................. 89
6.3 Problems Faced ........................................................................................................... 90
6.4 Future Work ................................................................................................................ 91

References .............................................................................................................................. 93
Appendix I – C++ Code ........................................................................................................ 95
Appendix I I– Arduino Mega ............................................................................................... 97
Appendix I – Arduino Nano ………………………………………………………………105
Appendix I V– Arduino Uno………………………………………………………………108
Appendix I V– Arduino Due………………………………………………………………112
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Table of Figures

Figure 1.1: Arcing occurring between two conducting wires .................................................. 10

Figure 2.1: Description of Series and Parallel Arc Faults in a Residential Branch Circuit ..... 19
Figure 2.2: Block diagram of system architecture ................................................................... 20
Figure 3.1: Project system architecture .................................................................................... 26
Figure 3.2: Illustration of parallel (top) and series (bottom) arc fault ..................................... 27
Figure 3.3: Test circuit used for arc modelling ........................................................................ 29
Figure 3.4: MATLAB Simulink model of Habedank arc model ............................................. 32
Figure 3.5: The voltage input waveform plotted in MATLAB Simulink ................................ 33
Figure 3.6: The arcing voltage waveform plotted in MATLAB Simulink .............................. 33
Figure 3.7: The arcing current waveform plotted in MATLAB Simulink .............................. 33
Figure 3.8: Arcing copper-graphite electrode model ............................................................... 35
Figure 3.9: Simulink model of the zero-crossing detector ....................................................... 38
Figure 3.10: Simulation results of the Simulink zero-crossing detector model ....................... 38
Figure 3.11: Zero-crossing detector circuit diagram in Multisim ............................................ 39
Figure 3.12: Plot of ZCD output (blue) for a sinusoidal input (red) in Multisim .................... 40
Figure 3.13: Magnitude of phase response of the designed band-pass filter ........................... 42
Figure 3.14: Upper envelope of an arbitrary signal ................................................................. 43
Figure 3.15: Plot of minimum detection device output for a signal’s upper envelope ............ 43
Figure 3.16: Complete band-pass filter circuit ........................................................................ 44
Figure 3.17: Band-pass filter circuit design in Multisim ......................................................... 45
Figure 3.18: Band-pass filter magnitude response in Multisim ............................................... 46
Figure 3.19: Roll-off of Butterworth filters from 1st to 6th order ............................................. 47
Figure 3.20: Butterworth filter circuit design in Multisim ...................................................... 48
Figure 3.21: Butterworth filter frequency response in Multisim ............................................. 48
Figure 3.22: The Multisim upper envelope detection circuit ................................................... 49
Figure 3.23: Graph showing the upper envelope (blue) of an arbitrary input signal (red) ...... 49
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Figure 3.24: Multisim design of minimum detection circuit with voltage divided output ...... 51
Figure 3.25: Multisim transient analysis of the minimum detection circuit ............................ 51
Figure 3.26: Arduino Uno microcontroller .............................................................................. 53
Figure 3.27: Arduino Due microcontroller .............................................................................. 54
Figure 3.28: Arduino Mega microcontroller ............................................................................ 55
Figure 3.29: Arduino Nano microcontroller ............................................................................ 56
Figure 4.1: ZCD circuit implemented on a bread board .......................................................... 62
Figure 4.2: Oscilloscope readings of ZCD circuit .................................................................. 63
Figure 4.3: 2D design of the ZCD circuit in Ultiboard ............................................................ 63
Figure 4.4: 3D design of the ZCD circuit in Ultiboard ............................................................ 64
Figure 4.5: ZCD circuit implemented on PCB ........................................................................ 64
Figure 4.6: Two stages of Butterworth filter circuit implemented on a bread board............... 65
Figure 4.7: The designed Butterworth bandpass filter in Ultiboard ........................................ 66
Figure 4.8: The 3D design of bandpass filter in Ultiboard ...................................................... 66
Figure 4.9: Envelope detection circuit implemented on a breadboard .................................... 67
Figure 4.10: Envelope detection at low frequency (50 Hz) ..................................................... 68
Figure 4.11: Envelope detection at high frequency (10 kHz) .................................................. 68
Figure 4.12: The 2D design of envelope detection circuit in Ultiboard .................................. 69
Figure 4.13: The 3D design of envelope detection circuit in Ultiboard .................................. 69
Figure 4.14: The combined bandpass filter and envelope detection circuit in Ultiboard ........ 70
Figure 4.15: 3D design of combined bandpass filter and minimum detection circuit in
Ultiboard .................................................................................................................................. 70
Figure 4.16: Combined bandpass filter and envelope detection circuit on PCB ..................... 71
Figure 4.17: The 2D design of minimum detection circuit in Ultiboard ................................. 72
Figure 4.18: The 3D design of minimum detection circuit in Ultiboard ................................. 72
Figure 4.19: Minimum detection circuit on PCB..................................................................... 73
Figure 5.1: Henry Gantt chart for Capstone phase one ........................................................... 77
Figure 5.2: Henry Gantt chart for Capstone phase two .......................................................... 77
Figure 5.3: Shows the gender of the sample ............................................................................ 80
Figure 5.4: Shows the age of the sample ................................................................................. 81
Figure 5.5: Shows if people own a home or a business ........................................................... 81
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Figure 5.6: Shows how familiar people with building electrical wiring.................................. 82
Figure 5.7: Shows if the sample experienced or heard of an electrical fire ............................. 83
Figure 5.8: Shows percentage of homes fires ......................................................................... 83
Figure 5.9: Shows if person ever heard about or dealt with electrical protection systems
before ....................................................................................................................................... 84
Figure 5.10: Shows how important a protection system is ...................................................... 84
Figure 5.11: Shows if people believes that electric protection system devices can reduce
physical damages for electrical equipment .............................................................................. 85
Figure 5.12: Shows the most important characteristic to an electric protection system .......... 85
Figure 5.13: Shows how much people are willing to pay for a protection system against home
fire ............................................................................................................................................ 86
Figure 5.14: Shows how much people ..................................................................................... 86
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Table of Tables

Table 1.1: Simplified table of the SWOT analysis .................................................................. 13

Table 2.1: Comparative table of all scholarly articles surveyed .............................................. 22
Table 3.1: Comparison of VIRCD and VDRCD ..................................................................... 37
Table 3.2: Arc fault connections, causes and current levels. ................................................... 40
Table 3.3: Comparison table of Arduino microcontrollers. ..................................................... 57
Table 3.4: Budget table. ........................................................................................................... 59
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Abstract

In recent days, electrical power consumption in households has increased tremendously.

With the increase in demand for electricity, there also comes a proportional increase in electrical
tribulations. Problems with electrical wirings may lead to arc faults which are one of the main
causes of electrical fires in buildings. This project proposes a design of an arc fault protection
system for low voltage systems. A mathematical arc model was developed using MATLAB’s
Simulink. An arc generating device was then built in order to practically test the functionality of
the protection system. A block diagram of the main protection system is split into a few essential
subsystems. It begins with three sensing circuits that act as inputs to a microcontroller. These
circuits are the zero-crossing detector circuit, current amplifier, and Butterworth filter with
minimum detection. Since arcing occurs mainly by the zero-crossing, the zero-crossing detector
circuit can be used to see if there is a high probability of arcing occurring. The current amplifier
informs the microcontroller if a load is connected or if there is simply noise on the line. Arcing
also produces frequencies in the range of 10 to 13 MHz, as such the Butterworth filter will filter
out these signals and pass them through a minimum detection circuit which returns a high or low
to the microcontroller based on the presence of high frequency signals. The microcontroller
analyzes the input data and sends a tripping signal to the current generator that steps it up in
order to trigger the circuit breaker. All these components when brought together make up a
comprehensive and efficient arc fault protection system.
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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
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1.1 Problem Statement

As technology evolves it has become more and more intertwined with our day-to-day lives.
The more electrical equipment people introduce into their home the more convenient their lives
become. However, with the introduction of more and more electrical appliances, the chances of an
electrical arc fault occurring also grows, and with it the chances of a fire igniting. It is estimated
that arcing faults cause over 30,000 home fires each year.
Arc faults occur when a bridge between two conductors and air is created. When this path
is created, a cloud of ionized air (plasma) forms which has conductive properties similar to that of
metals. An electrical discharge occurs through the air that travels from the live conductor to
ground, or to another live conductor.

Fig 1.1: Arcing occurring between two conducting wires.

Arcing manifests in the form of light and extremely high heat which can reach temperatures
in the range of 20,000 Kelvin. Due to this extremely high heat, these discharges vaporize the
circuitry around them, as well as ignite any flammable material that is close by. The occurrence of
fires within homes lead to loss of household valuables and in severe cases loss of human life.
The most common cause of arc faults is insulation failure. Cables may degrade over time
causing gaps in the insulation layer that allow air to get through to the conductor. However, arcing
may also be caused by loose connections or equipment malfunctions.
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1.2 Solution

This project aims to predict electrical arcs in an attempt at lessening any possible damage
done to electrical equipment, and more importantly reduce the probability of fires igniting within
households. To begin, sampling of the line current and voltages within the home is conducted,
these samples are then analyzed. Signals are filtered based on the frequency range that arcing is
expected to lie in in order to see if arcing is occurring. Upon the detection of arcing a tripping
signal is passed to the circuit breaker which will immediately isolate the problem area by switching
off the power. These steps will take place virtually instantaneously and will ideally not give
electrical arcs the chance of igniting any fires.
These extra steps of analyzing arcing signals are taken such that no false positives occur.
Sending a tripping signal to the circuit breaker at times when not needed may still cause harm to
the system. Imagine working in a hospital when suddenly, the power turns off without needing to.
The possible damage it can do may be quite substantial. This is something that will be avoided in
this arc fault prediction system.

1.3 Idea of Development

This idea was chosen after consulting with our project supervisor, Professor Amjad. The
professor informed this team that this venture is not only challenging and appropriate as a capstone
project, but that it is also beneficial to society and us personally, seeing as it will protect the very
homes that we ourselves live in.
Upon delving into the topic, we found that the project encompassed a plethora of interesting
engineering fields which included topics such as signal processing, power systems, and protection
schemes. Eventually we found that we are personally suited for this project because this group
collectively has a strong background in electrical arcing and breakdown voltages, system
protection schemes, power analysis, and digital signal processing thanks to the courses provided
here at the university.
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1.4 Goals

General goals aimed to be reached upon completion of this project include the following:

● To reduce the occurrence of household fires due to electrical arcs.

● To ensure the safety of the electrical equipment and system components.
● To not trip in cases of false tripping scenarios so not to cause unneeded interruption.
● To increase our knowledge of designing and building protection systems.

1.5 Objectives

The desired objectives that this project aims to achieve include the following:

● Accurately detect the arc fault before it may cause serious damage.
● Send a tripping signal to the circuit breaker in a timely manner.
● System should only trip in the presence of an arc fault.
● Noise resembling arcing should be ignored by the system.

1.6 SWOT Analysis

SWOT analysis will help identify the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats that
this project faces. The strengths and weaknesses of the project are considered internal factors, and
the threats and opportunities are considered to be external.
The strengths of this project include how this team is already well versed in the areas of
arcing and protection systems. The team members also have strong programming, circuitry
understanding, and microcontroller interfacing skills that are imperative to making this project
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feasible. Another strength is that this project aims to help protect people’s homes and is something
that will benefit people’s perception of this project.
One of the weaknesses of this project is that this team has never taken a circuit design to a
PCB board. We would need to find, learn, and master a PCB design software and then find an
outside company to build it. Another weakness of this project is that testing equipment needed is
relatively expensive and not only needs to be ordered from abroad, but also takes time to deliver.
This is seen as a major setback in terms of the development process.
An opportunity of this project is that it serves to help protect society. This is something
that homeowners may feel necessary to have in order to help in assuring their family’s safety. As
such, it is expected that a market for this project would exist. Furthermore, garnering financial
support would also be likely based on this same reason.
Threats include sending a tripping signal at times when no arc fault is occurring. Loads
will sometimes have frequency or current signatures like those of arcing, and sending a tripping
signal without needing to will have consequences. In severe cases a power interruption may even
be dangerous to the homeowners.

Table 1.1: Simplified table of the SWOT analysis.

Strengths Weaknesses

 Knowledge of signal processing,

electrical arcing and protection systems.
 Team members are well versed in  Lack of knowledge of PCB design.
programing, circuitry, and  Expensive testing equipment.
microcontroller interfacing.
 Project helps protect homes and lives.

Opportunities Threats

 Possible tripping of circuit breaker due

 A market exists for this product.
to presence of signals resembling arc
 Easy to get financial support.
faults.
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1.7 Summary

This chapter gave a general overview of the problem which this team will be attempting to
solve. A brief description of arc faults was given, which will be touched on again later. The team
members feel as though they have set out a group of goals and objectives that are challenging yet
imperative to completing this project effectively.
A rigorous analysis was done of the strength and weaknesses of the project, as well as of
the team members themselves. While it may be difficult to predict the opportunities that may arise,
as well as threats that may pressure this project in the future, the team touches on these issues with
some possible consequences.
In the sections to follow, this team has divided this project into six main chapters, including
this introductory chapter. Chapter 2 focusses on reading and learning from literary articles that will
aid the team in moving forward with the project. Chapter 3 meticulously describes the design
process; what elements of the project are important and what choices are available. Chapter 4
begins implementing the project and includes the real, tangible portion of this venture. Chapter 5
will look at evaluating the finished project from not only a functionality point of view, but also
perspectives such as ethical, economical, and social standpoints. The final section, Chapter 6,
delves into the project as a whole and what some of the major problems faced were as well what
possible evolutions the project may go through in the future.
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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
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2.1 Introduction

Three main objectives made up the process of conducting this literature review. A survey
was initially conducted in the chosen field on the currently available knowledge including
substantive findings as well as theoretical and methodological contributions. Next, the survey
information was synthesized into appropriate summaries. Finally, information gathered was
critically analyzed by presenting limitations and advantages found in each methodology, in
addition to collating any general knowledge deemed useful.

2.2 Literature Survey

The main focus of the articles that have been surveyed discuss the occurrence, and methods
of detection, of arcing in low voltage systems. The scope of the surveyed literatures include topics
such as arcing characteristics, arc fault modeling, arc fault detection circuit designs, and circuit
interrupters. This project specifically excluded topics that included arcing at medium to high
voltages as well as topics which spoke to taking preventative measures that stop arc faults from
initially occurring. Sources examined were available mainly from the IEEE article database, other
sources obtained originated from other smaller databases.

2.2.1 Value of Insulated Bus Bars in Reducing Arcing Fault Duration in Low-
Voltage System
This article basically speaks to how having an insulated and isolated bus bars may reduce
the damage dealt from an arc fault. This is due to the fact that when using insulated and isolated
bus bars the arcing duration will reduce resulting in a reduction in the total amount of energy
generated inside the equipment. Additionally, this insulated and isolated bus bar reduces the
possibility of arc faults forming. This analysis in based on the arc resistance test and simulation.
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To gain the greatest advantage of insulated and isolated bus bars the design should select arc fault
resistant switchgear. This will result in a more reliable and overall safer system.[1]

2.2.2 Analysis of Low Voltage Arcing Characteristic on Direct Short Circuit

Through Arcing Thermal Synchronization Sensing and Short Circuit Current
This article discusses the characteristics of arc faults on low voltage systems, which can
help in designing an arcing fault detector. The problem is that in low voltage systems the fire
caused by short circuits do not make the fuse trip or the circuit breaker open. This is due to the fact
that the duration of the short circuit fault is very fast and much faster than the circuit breaker’s
ability to detect it. In the experiment there are five times experiment for one variation of the number
of filament, for a total of twenty five experiments. Furthermore, the parameters of arc faults at low
voltages include maximum arcing temperature, arcing sectional area, decay time of arc
temperature, current, voltage, arcing duration, and arcing thermal image from electrical arc. The
most important parameter observed is the arcing thermal image which can be interpreted into much
more information such as the current, voltage, and temperature when short circuit occurs, start
from contact, flash, spark until melting conductor. At the end of the experiment, the article
concludes that the number of filaments is proportional with the maximum temperature, area,
temperature decay period, peak current and fault duration of electrical arc. The result of this
experiment shows that arcing temperature, area, and duration are 100 C, 1300 𝑚𝑚2, and 10
seconds respectively.[2]

2.2.3 Evaluation of LV and MV Arc parameters

This article discusses the different parameters that make up an arc fault, as well as the
characteristics of arc faults. Furthermore, it talks about the arc voltage where it provides a formula
to calculate the voltage of a free-burning arc in air as a function of the electrode gap and the arc
current. Any increase in the arc cooling will result in an increase in the arc voltage. The article
also determines that arc voltage may increase when the arc is cooled by a force blast of gas. These
two methods of increasing the arc voltage can cause arc instability. The article goes on to discuss
the arc current and short circuit current. Where there is asymmetrical and symmetrical short-circuit
current. The research shows that when the arc resistance in the circuit is nonlinear, the amplitude
of the short-circuit current will be greater than that of the arcing current. Also, the shape of the
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arcing fault current was deformed, specifically near to the zero crossing. Finally, the article talked
about the arc maximum value parameters for asymmetrical current in MV and LV circuits where
in LV the asymmetry can be neglected.[3]

2.2.4 Detection of Arc Fault on Low Voltage Power Circuits in Time and
Frequency Domain Approach
This article uses two different approaches to detect the series arc fault. These two
approaches include the spectrum energy approach and the current filter approach. The methods
adapted in this paper were deemed better than commercial AFCI due to its low malfunction rate.[4]

2.2.5 The arc-fault circuit interrupter, an emerging product

The purpose of the residential of the arc fault circuit interrupter which is AFCI is to
minimize the fire which is caused by electrical arcs. In addition, the devices for AFCI have rates
which are between 15 to 20 Amps at 20 volts. In addition, the main function of AFCI is to discover
the arc under the different conditions of the circuit to isolate the damaged part from the circuit. It
must also distinguish between a dangerous arc and the needed energy.[5]

2.2.6 Arc Fault Detection and Discrimination Methods

The evaluation in the protection system for the arc faults should evaluate their
characteristics and detect them as fast as it can. In addition, the evaluative device should not be so
sensitive for any arc faults; it should detect the characteristics of the arc fault. And, the evaluative
device should not be so sensitive, so it does not send a signal for the breaker circuit for any
minimum and not dangerous fault that it detects. So, one of the considered characteristics of the
arc fault is having a sudden and periodic interruption of the current, and the amount of the
interrupted currents depends on whether the fault is series or parallel. Also, knowing the fault is in
series or parallel is through the presence of broadband noise during the presence of the arc fault.
In addition, detecting the interruptions that are not synchronous to the line power zero crossings
can discriminate the arc fault from the other faults in a circuit.[6]
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Fig 2.1: Description of Series and Parallel Arc Faults in a Residential Branch Circuit.[6]

2.2.7 More about arc-fault circuit interrupters

This article discusses the detection of the presence of an arc fault. In addition, it discusses
the current and voltage arc fault characteristics that are detected by the arc fault circuit interrupter
(AFCI). Besides, there are three different types of uncontrolled arcing fault such as L-G, series
and L-N connections. Also, it describes the relationship between the frequency and the voltage or
current, and it explains the difference between the arced systems and non-arced systems.
Moreover, it clarifies the way in which a system monitors the voltage or current changes, and the
arc reacts accordingly.[7]

2.2.8 Method for On-line Detection of Arcing in Low Voltage Distribution

Systems
In the following article emphasis on a specific detection algorithm that detect the arc fault
in low voltage of two thirty AC volts of fifty Hz. In addition, it describes the arc and non-arc
signals. The test bench method tested the validity and the effect between the arc and the mimicked
arced signals. Finally, the method shows the applicant of continually monitoring the network and
that makes it a safer grid for the electrical network system as a whole.[8]
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2.2.9 Design of Arc Fault Detection Circuit in Low Voltage Switchboard

This research paper presents an arc fault detection circuit which bases the occurrence of an
arc fault on the presence of three main signals. These signals are attributed to pressure, heat, and
light. The paper speaks to how sensors incorporated within the circuit breaker sense a rise in light,
pressure, and heat which it then compares to predetermined normal thresholds in order to detect
arcing. While illumination levels are used as the main arc fault detection sensor, the heat and
pressure sensors are used as a double check to ensure no unnecessary power shutdown occurs.
Modeling and simulation for this study is done in PSpice with schematics and results attached. The
figure below shows the basic flowchart of their system block diagram. [9]

Fig 2.2: Block diagram of system architecture to detect abnormalities in

pressure, temperature, and light.[9]

2.2.10 The Historical Evolution of Arcing-Fault Models for Low-Voltage

Systems
This paper discusses the history behind arc faults by surveying studies dating all the way
back to the 1920s and comparing them to modern day methods of arc modeling. The research here
notes how the instantaneous current and voltage values depend on the gap width as well as
discusses arc extinction time. The research additionally provides useful fundamental information
regarding arc faults. Overall this paper provides quite a comprehensive view of the physics behind
arc faults including mathematical models for instantaneous arcing currents and voltages.[10]
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2.2.11 Arc fault detection apparatus and circuit breaker incorporating same
It includes band pass filter, and it is about the detection of arcing faults, which trips in
response to detect such arcing faults. The device incorporates band pass filtering implies
generating a low frequency data transmission constrained current motion from a detected flow flag
speaking to the ac flow streaming in the electrical power dispersion system. The low frequency
data transfer capacity constrained current signal has a frequency extend which is beneath the radio
frequencies which will in general be weakened by capacitive filtering on specific burdens found
in electric power dispersion frameworks or more quantifiable sounds of the power waveform.
Ideally the pass band is likewise beneath power line correspondence frequencies.[11]

2.2.12 Arc Fault Detector and Method

Arc fault detector is the protection of the electric circuits, by detecting and stopping the
electrical arcing in series and parallel circuits. The increase of the voltage potential for the system
will lead to increase the power source, load, and power transmission considerations. Moreover, the
impact of an increased voltage in the system that utilized the volts, and the direct current network,
this will require consideration to be focused on the arcing phenomenon that will appear within
electrical distribution systems and components.[12]

2.2.13 Simulation of Fault Arc Using Conventional Arc Models

This article discusses five different available models that describe arc fault behavior. It
speaks to these models as well as provides simulation results. It finds that arc fault voltage should
be simulated using a rectangular wave as well as stating which arc model it finds to be the most
accurate.[13]

2.3 Comparative Analysis

This section will go through the research surveyed and compare them in terms of how
appropriate and potentially helpful they are in the completion of this project. The table below
shows how each article aids this team by providing knowledge regarding a specific subsegment
of building an arc fault protection system.
 Page 23

Table 2.1: Comparative table of all scholarly articles surveyed.

Describes Arc Fault
Reference Mathematical Software Arc Fault
Arc Fault Detection
Number Equations Used Parameters
Behavior Method
1 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

2 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

3 ✓ ✓ ✓

4 ✓ ✓

5 ✓ ✓ ✓

6 ✓ ✓ ✓

7 ✓ ✓

8 ✓ ✓

9 ✓ ✓ ✓

10 ✓ ✓ ✓

11 ✓ ✓

12 ✓ ✓ ✓

13 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

2.3.1 Arc Fault Behavior

Almost all the articles provided a good description of the behavior of the arc fault. These
kinds of descriptions provide us with a very strong knowledge about the arcing phenomenon which
allows us to produce a fundamentally sound arcing protection system.
Knowing how and when arc faults occur is essential to understanding how to protect
against it.

2.3.2 Arc Fault Detection Methods

 Page 24

The article “Design of Arc Fault Detection Circuit in Low Voltage Switchboard” discusses
a detection design based around imploring temperature, pressure, and light sensors in order to
confirm the occurrence of arcing faults. The design presented in the research paper is to be
implemented inside a closed switchboard and although the design will be different from this
capstone project the results found are seen as valuable, as well as the equipment used.
The article “The arc-fault circuit interrupter, an emerging product” explains some of the
characteristics that could detect the presence of an arc fault. One of the mentioned characteristics
is the discharging of the electricity in insulating medium when the current is below 30 A, at 120V.
Also, this condition can lead to fire. This information can lead us to approximate readings to be
used when designing our model.

2.3.3 Mathematical Equations and Models

The article [3], show mathematical equation for calculating the arcing voltage, the free-
burning arc in air, and arcing current.
In addition, the article [4], shows equation for measuring the spectrum energy of line
current with series arc fault. Also, the relative change of the spectrum energy in cycle k (S k). The
main point of this article is the total score which is calculated using different parameter that are
shown in the article itself. However, after calculating the total score X H, we can identify if a series
arc fault occurs or not base on the value of XH.
The article “The Historical Evolution of Arcing-Fault Models for Low-Voltage Systems”
provides instantaneous arc models for resistive-inductive systems. Also provided in the article is
an equation used to estimate the arcing fault damage. This is important due to the fact that the
arcing fault damage is proportional to the arc current as well as providing information on the
amount of arc energy it takes to damage equipment. The article states that arcing faults hat release
10,000 kW-cycles or more may destroy system equipment as well as pose a serious threat to any
bystanders. The article goes on to discuss how upon igniting a fire the arc strikes again when the
system voltage equals the arc voltage. Additionally, supplied are the results of arc tests performed
on different cable types commonly found in the home.
These articles provide us with possible mathematic equation to use in our protection system
where all of them give away of detecting arc current using some calculations.
2.3.4 Software Comparison
 Page 25

Of the softwares used in modeling, [10] used PSpice to model their circuits. A big
limitation they found was that they had exceeded an analog node limit when attempting to run the
overall circuit. As such, they had to assume how the overall circuit would run based on partial tests
of the circuit. The researchers of article [2] used LabVIEW to model their system without
addressing any limitations or concerns.

2.4 Summary

In this chapter, thirteen total research articles were specifically picked in a way that best
represented the existing body of literature regarding arc fault protection systems. These twelve
articles were heavily reviewed and understood. An in-depth view of arc fault behavior and
characteristics in low voltage systems has been attained. Topics learned include how arc faults
initiate, arcing restrike current and voltage, arc extinction, and arc modeling.
Based on the collected knowledge of previous articles, the protection system that will be
implemented in this project will seek to be more reliable and evolved than the methods described
in the aforementioned articles. Where we analyzed the weaknesses and the strengths of them.
Moreover, the project will include the best parts of the previous research concepts, but it will focus
on the high overflow current to detect the arc fault.
 Page 26

CHAPTER 3

DESIGN & ANALYSIS

 Page 27

3.1 Introduction

The focus of this chapter will be on describing the final design, as well as mounting a
comparison of some possible design alternatives. Decisions made regarding the final design will
be justified either quantitatively or qualitatively and will be supported using simulation results.

3.2 System Architecture

The entire electrical system architecture can be seen in Figure 3.1, which includes all major
components of the final design. From the figure it is easy to see how components are related to
one another. Not all subsystems shown in the system architecture are required but have been added
as an additional measure of assurance that an arcing fault is present.

Fig 3.1: Project system architecture.

 Page 28

3.3 Arc Fault Modeling

This section will begin by describing the different subtypes of arc faults and explain which
type fits best for this project. It will then move on to discuss the different ways we can simulate
arc faults as well as decide on which model best resembles that of this project.

3.3.1 Subtypes of Arc Faults

There are two main subtypes of arcing faults in low voltage systems. The two types are the
parallel and series arc faults, and the figure below illustrates how they may basically transpire.
This section will discuss both types and which of the two types this project is most suited for.

Fig 3.2: Illustration of parallel (top) and series (bottom) arc fault.

3.3.1.1 Series Arc Faults

Series arc faults may occur anywhere inside an electrical circuit and may last as long as
minutes. This type of arc acts as an electrical component seen as being in series with the load and
has a sizeable influence on the load current. This noticeable impact on load current is due to the
fact that the arc impedance and load impedance act as a voltage divider and as such voltage is
divided between them. The arcing current, 𝐼 , is limited to the connected load current and
 Page 29

depends on the arc impedance, 𝑍 . The arc fault is difficult to detect by the safety device because
it is limited.
Possible reasons of series arc faults occurring include loosening connections of bus bars or
cable connections with a poor contact.

3.3.1.2 Parallel Arc Faults

Although the parallel arc fault lasts a much shorter time that the series arc fault (less than
a second), it may reach arcing current levels of hundreds of amperes. This results in a very high
level of power dissipation that may ignite a fire, as well as cause damage to equipment due to
melting.
Parallel arcs are initiated upon the bridging of two phases (either line-to-line or line-to-
ground) and are often times the result of external influences such as maintenance work.

3.3.1.3 Chosen Type of Arc Fault

This project finds that both types of arc faults have the potential to cause serious damages.
With an arc fault duration of 300 ms the arc fault temperature has the potential to reach its
maximum and it is best that the protection system should act in a timely manner of less than 2 ms.
As such, the team members of this project believe that it is imperative that both types of arc faults
should be detected.

3.3.2 Types of Arc Fault Models

It is important to simulate arc faults for calculation purposes. The protection system of this
project needs to be designed using pre-known and real values of arcing currents in order to get the
best possible outcome of the protection system. This section will focus on discussing five
conventional arcing fault models, as well as supplying suitable simulation results where needed.
Finally, a model which best represents the arc faults to be expected will be chosen from the five.
Existing arc models are classified into two categories. The first being physical models, and
the second are called Black Box Models. Physical models are more complex since they involve
fluid dynamics equations, thermodynamics, and a combination of Maxwell’s equations. Whereas
 Page 30

the black box models describe arcs through differential equations that establish relationships
between arc conductance and arc quantities such as current and voltage. The models to be utilized
and compared here are black box models, for their simplicity.
It is preferable for simulation to represent arcs as electrical elements in a circuit. For the
following arc models, we use this test circuit:

Fig 3.3: Test circuit used for arc modeling.

Where we have 𝑖 is the arc current, 𝑢 is the voltage across the arc fault, and 𝑢 is the supply
voltage. From this circuit the following equation is obtained:

𝑑𝑖
𝑢 = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 +𝑢 (3.1)
𝑑𝑡

3.3.2.1 Cassie Arc Model

In 1939 the Cassie model was developed. This model makes a few assumptions about
arcing for simplification reasons. Namely that arc voltage is constant in time, arc temperature is
constant in both space and time, arc takes the shape of a cylindrical column with a cross-sectional
area that varies with time, and that the cooling power is constant in time.
Based on these assumptions the Cassie arc model represents the dynamic properties of an
AC arc as follows:

1 𝑑𝑔 1 𝑢
= −1 (3.2)
𝑔 𝑑𝑡 𝜏 𝑈
 Page 31

Where 𝑔 is the conductance of the arc [S], 𝜏 is the arc time constant [s], and 𝑈 is the arc reference
voltage drop when in a temporarily stable condition [V].

This model is suitable for studying the high intensity arcing current (𝑖 > 500𝐴).

3.3.2.2 Mayr’s Arc Model

The Mayr model was constructed in 1943 by Otto Mayr. When it comes to the Mayr model,
the arc cross section and the energy lost exclusively by thermal conduction is assumed to be
constant. Also, when it comes to the arc conductance, it is assumed to be uniform within the arc
column and depends on the internal energy of arc. By considering these premises, the Mayr’s arc
model equation is given as follows:

1 𝑑𝑔 1 𝑢𝑖
= −1 (3.3)
𝑔 𝑑𝑡 𝜏 𝑃

Where 𝑃 is the cooling constant and ensures the mean value of the arc voltage.

The Mayr arc model was found to be suitable for modeling low current intensities (𝑖 < 500𝐴).

3.3.2.3 Schwarz Arc Model

In 1971 J. Schwarz proposed the following arc model which states that the arc time constant
and the cooling power are dependent on the arc conductance. Equations (3.4) and (3.5) show these
dependencies.
𝜏 = 𝜏 𝑔𝑎 (3.4)

𝑃= 𝑃𝑔 (3.5)

This arc model can then be written as follows:

1 𝑑𝑔 1 𝑢𝑖
= −1 (3.6)
𝑔 𝑑𝑡 𝜏0 𝑔 𝑃𝑔
 Page 32

𝑃 is the constant factor in the cooling power expression. The parameter 𝑎 influences the
conductance dependency of 𝜏, and 𝑏 is the parameter that influences the conductance dependency
of 𝑃.

3.3.2.4 Habedank’s Arc Model

Moving on to Habedank’s arc model. This model is a compensation of the two classic black
box models, where its differential equation is considered by taking the summation of equations for
the Cassie arc model and Mayr arc model.

1 𝑑𝑔 1 𝑢
= −1 (3.7)
𝑔 𝑑𝑡 𝜏 𝑈

1 𝑑𝑔 1 𝑢 𝑔
= −1 (3.8)
𝑔 𝑑𝑡 𝜏 𝑃𝑔

Combining equation (3.7) and (3.8) we obtain the following:

1 1 1
= + (3.9)
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔

Where 𝑔 is the arc conductance described by Cassie's model, 𝑔 is the arc conductance
described by Mayr's model, and 𝑔 is the total arc conductance.
The Habedank arc model gives an accurate representation of arcing faults at various
currents intensities.

3.3.2.5 Schavemaker’s Arc Model

Another black box model is Schavemaker’s arc model. This model is an adjusted version
of the Mayr’s arc model with time constant τ and cooling power as function of electrical power
input.
 Page 33

1 𝑑𝑔 1 𝑢𝑖
= −1 (3.10)
𝑔 𝑑𝑡 𝜏 max(𝑈 |𝑖|, 𝑃 + 𝑃 𝑢𝑖)

Where 𝑃 and 𝑃 represent both cooling constants.

3.3.2.6 Chosen Arc Model for This Project

Comparing all model results with each other shows that the Habedank arc model seemed
to be the most accurate when compared to practical test results. As previously stated, the Hadebank
model gave an accurate representation of arcing current at various current intensities. As such, the
Habedank arc model was used in all arcing simulations.
Below are the simulation models and results plotted in MATLAB Simulink. An input
voltage signal having amplitude of 400 V and frequency of 50 Hz was used for this simulation.

Fig 3.4: MATLAB Simulink Model of the Habedank arc model.

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Fig 3.5: The voltage input waveform plotted in MATLAB Simulink.

Fig 3.6: The arcing voltage waveform plotted in MATLAB Simulink.

Fig 3.7: The arcing current waveform plotted in MATLAB Simulink.

 Page 35

It can be seen from the arcing voltage waveform that it closely resembles a square wave,
with sharp impulses when the input signal is around the zero crossing. The arcing current plot
shows that the arcing current will momentarily extinguish during the zero crossing.

3.3.3 Practical Arc Model

In order to conduct actual testing, a reliable method of creating an arc fault must be
established. The basic principle of arc fault production is based on over-voltage initiation. By
placing two electrodes at a close enough distance, a significant voltage drop between them will
cause the air to breakdown and a conducting path will form between them. Air has a dielectric
breakdown voltage of approximately 30 kV/cm.
Simply taking two live conducting wires and placing them in proximity may result in an
arc fault. However, this team feels that this approach is not only unsafe but also quite unreliable.
As such, a more reliable method of creating an arc fault was chosen.

3.3.3.1 Practical Arc Model by Copper-Graphite Electrodes

In this method a stationary copper rod is used as one electrode, while the other electrode is
a moving carbon-graphite rod. The electrodes are initially placed in contact with each other and a
strong current is created between them with a very high current density. This extremely high
current density will cause a great deal of heat to the moving electrode. As the carbon-graphite
electrode is slowly moved away a melted bridge is created from which the arc will initiate.
The figure below shows the basic outline of the copper-graphite arcing model. Also,
important to keep in mind is that the lateral adjustment knob can be replaced with a stepper motor.
The use of a stepper motor may be safer, as it can be controlled from a distance. However, this
team feels that a manual knob is sufficient considering we will be taking the necessary safety
precautions by dressing in appropriate safety attire. This will in turn cut down project costs.
 Page 36

Fig 3.8: Arcing copper-graphite electrodes model.

3.3.3.2 Arcing Model Via Function Generator

In this method a function generator could be used in order to supply a waveform that most
resembles arcing. The mathematical models obtained in Simulink would be used to model a single
period of the waveform in a function generator that it would continuously supple to the system.
This method is much more reliable and safer than the previously mentioned method.
However, arcing waveforms are almost never constant and as such a protection system designed
only for one possible period of an arc may not work in cases where slight arcing variations may
occur.

3.3.3.3 Chosen Arcing Generator

Of the discussed arc generators, this team believes that the copper-graphite electrode arc
model is best suited for this project. It can provide constant arcing ina controlled manner which
is safer than the method of using two wires and more realistic than the function generator.
 Page 37

3.4 Main Subsystems

In this section, a description of each subsystem will be presented with modelling and
simulation results provided. Each subsystem design choice will also be presented with proper
justification for its choice.

3.4.1 Circuit Breaker and Actuator

A residual current device (RCD) is a very sensitive safety device that can switch off an
electrical device if a fault were to occur. Another similar type of device is a residual circuit breaker
with over current protection (RCBO). RCBOs acts like an RCD but also breaks the circuit in cases
where current demand becomes too high. This extra functionality is not needed for this project
seeing as the only input to the RCD will come from the microcontroller. It will be the role of the
microcontroller to communicate to the RCD to break the circuit. As such over currents will not be
expected to occur.
Subclassifications of RCDs include the voltage independent residual current device
(VIRCD) and voltage dependent residual current device (VDRCD). The former uses the residual
current from the output winding of the current transformer and the latter needs to electronically
amplify that same current. Both types have been shown to provide completely comparable
protection. The table below summarizes the main differences between the two subclasses of RCDs.
This project has chosen to utilize a VIRCD based on two main reasons. The first reason
being that no added energy expenditure will be needed for this protection scheme. The second
reason being that the need for an auxiliary energy source will only increase the chances of a failure
occurring.
 Page 38

Table 3.1: Comparison of VIRCD and VDRCD.

Voltage Independent Voltage Dependent

Residual Current Device Residual Current Device

Needs no auxiliary energy for operation. Relies on a voltage supply.

Mainly used in Europe. Mainly used in the United States.

3.4.2 Current Generator

A current generator is an important element of this design. The tripping signal supplied by
the microcontroller is not sufficient in magnitude in order to trip the circuit breaker. The role of
the current generator will be to increase the current level of the tripping signal to one that can be
utilized by the circuit breaker.

3.4.3 Zero-Crossing Detection

The zero-crossing detection device, or ZCD, is a signal comparator that detects when a
signal’s waveform crosses from a negative to a positive value, and vice versa. The zero-crossing
detector is a phase meter and time marker generator and it is used to synchronize the
microcontroller clock such that it follows the current sinusoid.
It is also important to note that based on the surveyed research, arcing tends to occur by
the zero-crossing. Therefore, the ZCD will be additionally used as a double check to help reduce
any erroneously detected arcing faults.
 Page 39

3.3.3.1 Modeling and Simulation of Zero-Crossing Detector

In MATLAB Simulink a zero-crossing detector can be modeled by first passing the input
signal through a signum function. The signum function returns a value of positive one, zero, and
negative one when the input signal has a positive, zero, or negative value respectively.

𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑢𝑚(𝑥) = (3.11)
𝑎𝑏𝑠(𝑥)

Next, the signal is passed through a saturation block with an upper limit of positive one
and lower limit of negative one. The signal is then flipped about the horizontal axis and one is
added to produce the final output. The figures below show the model design and results.

Fig 3.9: Simulink model of the zero-crossing detector.

Fig 3.10: Simulation results of the Simulink zero-crossing detector model.

 Page 40

3.4.3.2 Design of the Zero-Crossing Detector

The zero-crossing detector was designed using Multisim and used basic system
components. Two resistors, 𝑅 and 𝑅 , were chosen with values of 600 𝑘Ω, and 10 𝑘Ω
respectively. The transistor type used was an NPN BJT transistor. The diode is important to protect
against the input going below the negative input common mode limit. The transistor will indicate
whether the input is greater than or less than zero volts. If the input is a positive voltage, the
transistor output will be low, and if the input is a negative voltage the transistor output will be
high.
Figures below show the circuit diagram and output plot of the zero-crossing detector. From
the output plot it can be seen that during the zero crossing which occurs twice per period, the output
moves from a value of high to low, or vice versa.

Fig 3.11: Zero-crossing detector circuit diagram in Multisim.

 Page 41

Fig 3.12: Plot of ZCD output (blue) for a sinusoidal input (red) in Multisim.

3.4.4 Current Amplifier

The current amplifier will take a measurement of the line current. This measured current
will be used to check if a load is connected, or else if the signals being read are simply noise on
the line. The tables below show the different arc current levels to be expected, as well as the
different methods used to protect against arc faults.

Table 3.2: Arc fault connections, causes and current levels.

Connection

Series (L-L) Parallel (L-PE) Parallel (L-N)

Unstable wiring or damaged Temperature and Damaged

Causes
conductor humidity insulator

Current
Undetectable 2.5 A 𝐼𝛥𝑛 = 300 𝑚𝐴
Levels
 Page 42

3.4.5 Filter and Minimum Detection

A bandpass filter is a special filter which has two cut-off frequencies based on a desired
range. Frequencies that lie outside of the desired range will be attenuated to the point where they
will be negligible in amplitude.
The minimum detection device will take the filtered frequencies and output a high or low
signal to the microcontroller. A high signal is given if the signal frequency falls within the desired
range, and a low signal is given otherwise.
The filter and minimum detection device are two of the most important parts of this project,
as they will be used to decisively affirm the existence of an arcing fault Arcing faults produce
frequencies in the range of 10 to 13 MHz. These will be the chosen cut-off frequencies. However,
it is important to note that some loads may also produce frequencies that resemble arcing faults.

3.4.5.1 Modeling and Simulation of Filter and Minimum Detection

The designed bandpass filter has a response which can be seen in the figure below. The
desired frequencies which will not be attenuated lie between 10 and 13 MHz, whereas attenuations
as high as -10 dB will be done to frequencies that lie outside the desired range. Modeling the
bandpass filter in MATLAB was based on the following transfer function:

𝑉 −𝜔 −𝑠 −𝑅
𝐻(𝑠) = =
𝑉 𝑠+𝜔 𝑠+𝜔 𝑅

−𝐾𝜔 𝑠
= (3.12)
𝑠 + (𝜔 + 𝜔 )𝑠 + (𝜔 𝜔 )

Where 𝐾 is the gain of the system and is used in place of 𝑅 /𝑅 , 𝜔 is the lower cutoff frequency,
and 𝜔 is the upper cutoff frequency. Plugging in our desired values we obtain the following
transfer function and corresponding Bode diagram:
 Page 43

(6.283 × 10 )𝑠
𝐻(𝑠) = −𝑘
𝑠 + (6.289 × 10 )𝑠 + (3.947 × 10 )

Fig 3.13: Magnitude and phase response of the designed bandpass filter.

Before minimum detection is done to the signal, an upper envelope is first created. The
upper envelope is a smooth curve that outlines the upper peaks of the signal and its basic shape.
Below is what the upper envelope of an arbitrary signal will look like.
 Page 44

Fig 3.14: Upper envelope of an arbitrary signal.

The upper envelope of the attenuated signal will then be passed through the minimum
detection device. A normalized amplitude which is greater than the chosen threshold should return
an output of high, and an output of low should be given otherwise. Simulation results can be seen
in the figure below.

Fig 3.15: Plot of minimum detection device output for a signal’s upper envelope.
 Page 45

The chosen threshold was set to 1.5 and any point where the envelope returns a value above
1.5 an output of high should be expected. In this case high was chosen to be 1.5 and low chosen to
be 0, keeping in mind that these values can be easily manipulated.

3.4.5.2 Design of the Filter and Minimum Detection Device

The bandpass filter will have two cutoff frequencies, 𝑓 and 𝑓 . Which represent the low
and high cutoff frequencies respectively. The filter will have both a highpass and lowpass filter
appended to each other, as well as amplification. The following equations dictate the relationship
between frequency, resistor, and capacitor values.

1
𝑓 = [Hz] (3.13)
2𝜋𝑅𝐶

The complete circuit design of the bandpass filter can be seen in the figure below. From
the figure it can be seen that there are three stages. A low pass filter stage, a high pass filter stage,
and an amplification stage.

Fig 3.16: Complete bandpass filter circuit

If we were to choose capacitances for 𝐶 and 𝐶 of 0.1 µF each, and our chosen 𝑓 and 𝑓
are 10 and 13 MHz respectively, then we have the following resistor values:
 Page 46

1 1
𝑅 = = = 159.2 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
2𝜋𝑓 𝐶 2𝜋(1 × 10 )(1 × 10 )

1 1
𝑅 = = = 122.4 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
2𝜋𝑓 𝐶 2𝜋(13 × 10 )(0.1 × 10 )

The resistors 𝑅 and 𝑅 dictate the amount of amplification gain that is to be placed on the
filtered signals. So, for a gain of -3 dB we have the following equation:

𝑅
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 = −3 𝑑𝐵 = log
𝑅

𝑅 /𝑅 = 10

Therefore, we can choose values for 𝑅 and 𝑅 of 1 × 10 Ω and 1 × 10 Ω that satisfy our
desired gain. In the figures below, we can see the designed band-pass filter in Multisim and
accompanying magnitude response of the filter.

Fig 3.17: Bandpass filter circuit design in Multisim.

 Page 47

Fig 3.18: Bandpass filter magnitude response in Multisim.

It can be seen from the Multisim plot that almost no attenuation occurs in the desired
frequency range of the bandpass filter, whereas frequencies outside the desired range are
attenuated to very small values. However, it is of the opinion of this project team that the filter
response is not sufficient in filtering out unwanted signals. This is because some household items
may produce frequencies that are like those of arcing signals and as such a steeper filter response
should be used.
A Butterworth filter was then looked at to take the place of the previously designed filter.
Butterworth filters are of higher-order. This higher-order filter type gives a much narrower roll-
off and transition band, for a trade-off of increased complexity. The passband of a Butterworth
filter boasts a very flat and monotonic response with minimal ripple. Compared to other higher-
order filters such as the Chebyshev or Bessel filter, the Butterworth gives a better pulse response
and attenuation rate, respectively.
The figure below shows how the transition band of a Butterworth filter becomes narrower
the higher the order becomes. For this project a sixth order Butterworth filter was chosen to be
implemented.
 Page 48

Fig 3.19: Roll off of Butterworth filters from 1 st to 6th order.

Using the previously calculated value for 𝑅 , and chosen value of 𝐶 , the designed
Butterworth filter in Multisim along with its frequency response.
 Page 49

Fig 3.20: Butterworth filter circuit design in Multisim.

Fig 3.21: Butterworth filter frequency response in Multisim.

 Page 50

Moving on to the envelope detector, most practical envelope detectors will use either half-
wave or full-wave rectifiers. These will convert the AC input into a pulsed DC signal where the
peaks of the DC pulses represent the input signal. The figures below show the Multisim circuit
design and graphs for the constructed upper envelope detection circuit.

Fig 3.22: The Multisim upper envelope detection circuit.

Fig 3.23: Graph showing the upper envelope (blue) of an arbitrary input signal (red).

The upper envelope detection circuit above used an input signal of two sine waves
multiplied with each other. For this test the two sine waves were given frequencies of 100 and 5
 Page 51

Hz and a capacitance of 30 µF was used in circuit design itself. Upon final implementation of the
circuit the resistor and capacitor values will be adjusted accordingly to fit the needed design.
The ripple seen in the envelope output is common when this type of circuit is used with
low frequency signals and can be smoothed out using filtering techniques. However, arcing
occurs at much higher frequencies than those tested and as such little to no ripple is expected to
occur. Thus, in order to reduce overall complexity and costs, this project has decided against
using additional filter smoothing on the envelope detector output.
Moving on to the thresholding aspect of the minimum detection, the upper envelope should
be passed through a comparator. This comparator will compare the amplitude to a reference
voltage and if the signal voltage is greater than that of the reference voltage a value of high should
be given, otherwise a value of low is outputted. This is shown in the equations below.

𝑖𝑓 𝑉 > 𝑉 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑉 = 10 𝑉
𝑉 = 𝑓(𝑉 ) = (3.X)
𝑖𝑓 𝑉 ≤ 𝑉 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑉 =0𝑉

𝑉 is chosen such that a constant input is given to the microcontroller in the case where
the line signal has high frequency components present. For the above equation, 𝑉 is given a
value of 20 V in the presence of high frequency components, and 0 V when the signal has no high
frequency components.
For the comparator 𝑉 depends on voltage division of the 𝑉 of the operational amplifier
itself. Looking at the figure below, R1 and R2 are given equal values. Such that 𝑉 in this case
is simply half of 𝑉 . Therefore, for a 𝑉 of 20 V, we obtain a 𝑉 of 10 V, and an output of high
which is equivalent to 20 V. Further voltage division can be done to the opamp output to obtain a
high output of 10 V. This can be seen by resistors R4 and R5.
 Page 52

Fig 3.24: Multisim design of the minimum detection circuit with voltage divided output.

Fig 3.25: Multisim transient analysis of the minimum detection circuit.

For testing the circuit, the input used was the output of the envelope detection circuit
(red). The output signal (green) can be seen as giving a value of 10 V when the envelope rises
above 10 V and returns a value of 0 V when the envelope is less than 10 V. This was as
expected.
 Page 53

3.4.5.3 Reducing the Power of the Line Before Entering the Filtering Stage
Before any filtering is done, it is important to protect the filters from the high power that
is coming down the line. This team found that there are two main methods of doing this.
The first method is by using a step-down current transformer. The problem with this
method is that the current transformer must be one that can step down at a very high frequency
and as such these transformers are quite expensive.
The second method, and the one that this team has opted for, is done using a shunt
resistance. Most of the high-frequency content will still be present and the current passing through
into the filtering stage will be of a nominal level that will not damage any components.

3.4.6 Microcontroller

The microcontroller is an essential part of this project. The microcontroller needs to be able
to receive three input signals. Input signals to the microcontroller come from the zero-crossing
detector, load current amplifier, and minimum detection device. The microcontroller should
process these signals and assuming they all supply a value of high (or a switch from high to low
and adversely in the case of the zero-crossing detector) then a tripping signal should be outputted
from the microcontroller.
The sections that follow discuss four types of Arduino microcontrollers, along with their
respective specifications and which of these microcontrollers best suits this project.

3.4.6.1 Arduino Uno

It is important to mention view point about the Arduino Uno with respect to the power,
input and output, communication, programming, software, and USB Overcurrent protection.
When it comes to the power, the Arduino Uno can be powered with USB connection or external
power supply (it is a battery or an AC-to-DC adapter wall-wart). The external power supply can
be supply by 6 to 20 volts. However, if the Arduino Uno is supplied with less than 7 volts, the
board may be unstable. Also, it’s supplied by voltage greater than 12 volts, the voltage regulator
may overheat and cause damages to the board.
 Page 54

For the input and output, the 14 digital pins on the Arduino Uno can be used as an input
or an output, using specific functions like pinMode(). However, some of the Uno pins have a
specific functionality, example of that is Serial 0(RX) and 1(TX) which is used for receiving
(RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial data. Another example is SPI, 10(SS), 11(MOSI), 12(MISO),
13(SCK) pins support the SPI communication by using the SPI library.
For the communication, the Uno provide a serial communication, as well as its supports I2C
(TWI) and SPI communication.
Also, for the programing, Arduino Uno does not need any external hardware
programmer. The user can avoid the bootloader and program the microcontroller through the
ICSP (In-Circuit Serial Programming) header.
Finally, for the USB Overcurrent protection, the Uno is provided with a resettable
polyfused. This resettable polyfused protect the user computer from USB ports from shorts and
overcurrent. This protection provides an extra level of protection.

Fig 3.26: Arduino Uno microcontroller.

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3.4.6.2 Arduino Due

The Arduino Due it goes down the flash microcontroller family based on its high
performance 32-bit ARM Cortex-M3 RISC processor. This Arduino is a microcontroller board
based on the Atmel SAM3X8E ARM Cortex-M3 CPU. Its board based on a 32-bit ARM core
microcontroller. this Arduino not like the other Arduinos where it runs at 3.3 volts as the
maximum voltage. This Arduino is suitable for large scale project.
This type of Arduino is good if the user wants and needs to do multiple of things at once
and fast at the same time.
The disadvantage of it is that this Arduino lacks of shield compatibility, and it doesn’t
work with 5V like many sensors do.

Fig 3.27: Arduino Due microcontroller.

3.4.6.3 Arduino Mega 2560

This Arduino is suitable with most shields designed for the Arduino Duemilanove or
Diecimila. This Arduino is microcontroller board based on the ATmega2560(datasheet). It has
 Page 56

54 I/O pins, 16 analog inputs, 4 UARTs (hardware serial ports), a 16 MHz crystal oscillator, a
USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button.

Fig 3.28: Arduino Mega 2560 microcontroller.

3.4.6.4 Arduino Nano

When it comes to the Arduino Nano the most essential feature is the size where it is very
small which allowed being very practical and suitable for small size projects. It has a built-in 6
PWM input/output from the total of 14 digital input/output, 8 analog inputs, 32 kB of flash
memory, 16MHz clock speed and has a processor ATmega328. Also, it does not need a power
plug for the external power supply. It can be powered either from an unregulated power supply
(pin30) which is through the USB Mini-B Cable instead of a standard one or powered through 5v
regulated external power supply (pin27). The custom of the Adriano Nano is to generate clock of
accurate frequency using a constant voltage.
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Fig 3.29: Arduino Nano 3.0V microcontroller.

3.4.6.5 Chosen Microcontroller

This group feels that the Arduino Nano is a suitable microcontroller for this project. In
terms of size it is the smallest of the four microcontrollers looked at and as such will give the
project a more compact shape. The protection device should be small so that it does not
overcomplicate the installation process for homes. The microcontroller also has a sufficient
number of input and output ports as only a total of four will be needed. A smaller device also
entails a smaller power consumption which is also a desirable trait.
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Table 3.3: Comparison table of Arduino microcontrollers.

UNO DUE MEGA NANO
Atmel ATmega168
Microcontroller ATmega328 AT91SAM3X8E ATmega2560
or ATmega328
Operating Voltage 5V 3.3V 5V 5V

Operating Voltage 7-12V

7-12V 7-12V 7-12V
(recommended)
Input Voltage 6-20V
6-20V 6-16V 6-20V
(limits)
14 54 54 14
Digital I/O Pins
(6 PWM output) (12 PWM output) (14 PWM output) (6 PWM output)

Analog Input Pins 6 12 16 8

Analog Output Pins - 2 (DAC) - -

DC Current per I/O 40mA

40 mA - 40 mA
Pin
Total DC Output -
- 130 mA -
Current on I/O Pins
DC Current for -
50 mA 800 mA 50 mA
3.3V Pin
DC Current for 5V -
- 800 mA -
Pin
16 KB (ATmega168)
32 KB of which 512 KB all 256 KB of which 8 or 32 KB
Flash Memory 0.5KB used by available for the KB used by (ATmega328)
bootloader user application bootloader of which 2 KB
used by bootloader
96 KB 1 KB
(ATmega168) or 2
SRAM 2 KB (two banks: 64KB 8 KB
KB (ATmega328)
and 32KB)
512 bytes
EEPROM 1 KB - 4 KB (ATmega168) or 1
KB (ATmega328)
 Page 59

3.5 Other Considerations

Arcing fault detection methods take on many forms. System designs are plentiful and in
this section design alternatives will be presented with reasons for why they were not implemented
or not suited for this project.

3.5.1 Arc Fault Detection Using Temperature, Light, and Pressure Sensors
One design alternative implored the use of pressure, light, and temperature sensors in an
attempt at detecting arc faults in low voltage switchboards. The aforementioned sensors would
measure their respective signals and compare to reference values. If all three signals presented
abnormal values only then would the system assume the presence of an arc-fault. We find this
method to be unsuitable for a few reasons.
This method is only suitable at detecting arc-faults within a small, dark, and enclosed space.
Any arc fault occurring down the line would not be detected. When compared to our project’s
method, our project is designed in a way in which arc-faults are detected through sampling the line
current itself. This ensures that the entire line is protected and any arc-faults occurring anywhere
throughout this line will be detected.
Also, worth noting is that temperature and pressure sensing is not instantaneous and as
such will not detect the presence of arc-faults quickly. Whereas our method will act much faster
during the presence of arc-faults and as such help protect the system equipment from damage at a
much faster rate.
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3.6 Budget

Budgeting is an important aspect of any project. Not allocating funds aptly may hinder
project development and in some cases a depleted budget will force the project to cease completely.
The table below shows the approximate expected expenditure that will be undergone by
this project. With The number of each component being used as well as price entailed.

Table 3.4: Budget table.

Name of the Item Code Number of the items Price
component
Resister - 40 KWD 0.050
Transistor BC 237 (NPN) 2 KWD 0.250
Amplifier UA471CN 20 KWD 0.050
Bread Board - 3 2.500 KWD
Printed Circuit Board - 5 2.500 KWD
(PCB)
Arduino Nano - 6 3 KDW
Wires - 50 KWD 0.050
Shunt Resistor (Power 7W1R2J 5 2 KDW
Resistor)
Crocodile Clips - 30 KWD 0.750
LED - 10 KWD 0.050
Socket Protection for - 12 4.900 KWD
Amplifiers
Circuit Breaker 1 Pole MCB 1 2 KWD

Current Generator DC Boost Converter 1 5 KWD

9-45 V
Arc Generator - 1 50 KWD

3 PIN Crowtail Cable - 3 KWD 0.750

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3.7 Summary

This chapter has shown the comprehensive process of conducting the design phase of the
project. Based on researched information and the virtual testing conducted, this team feels as
though we have left no stone unturned in our design process.
From presenting the major subsystems needed, which include stages such as filtering and
microcontroller coding, to showing the smallest design choices made in each subsystem, like
whether a first order RLC filter or a higher order Butterworth filter best suits this project’s needs.
All in all, this chapter has helped further this team’s design skills, as well as enhanced our
ability to overcome obstacles. At many points, initial ideas on how the project should be
implemented has changed and all this has toughened the team members when it comes to starting
a design from scratch.
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CHAPTER 4

IMPLEMENTATION
 Page 63

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter, we will be describing how the implementation was conducted for the arc
fault protection system, the tools and components that had been used through the implementation,
and the problems and obstacles that were faced throughout the process as well as the solutions
found for these problems.
The chapter will first go through how each hardware stage was built, followed by how they
were assembled together, and finally how they were all integrated using the Arduino Nano
microcontroller.

4.2 Zero-Crossing Detection Circuit

The ZCD circuit was first connected on a normal breadboard, as was described in the design
stage. It was tested using an input sine wave of 50 Hz with an amplitude of 5 V. The figures below
show the breadboard circuit connections, and oscilloscope wave readings.

Fig 4.1: ZCD circuit implemented on a breadboard.

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Fig 4.2: Oscilloscope readings of the ZCD circuit.

The input wave is colored orange and output wave is colored blue.

The ZCD circuit gave a reading as was predicted. The output should switch between high
and low values at the zero-crossing with an expected small delay. A high value of 5 V was chosen.
The ZCD circuit was then designed to fit a more compact PCB. This was done in National
Instruments’ Ultiboard. Ultiboard gives the ability to see a finished circuit design in three
dimensions and in a much more compact sense as it will allow this team to make circuits without
the need to messy wiring.

Fig 4.3: The 2D design of the ZCD circuit in Ultiboard.

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Fig 4.4: The 3D design of the ZCD circuit in Ultiboard.

The figures below show the final printed and soldered zero crossing detection circuit
from the front and back.

Fig 4.5: ZCD circuit implemented on PCB.

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4.3 Butterworth Filter Circuit

The Butterworth band-pass filter was first implemented on a normal breadboard based on
the designs of chapter three. Below are two of the stages built and tested.

Fig 4.6: Two stages of the Butterworth filter circuit implemented on a breadboard.

The Butterworth band-pass filter circuit was then drawn up using National Instruments’
Ultiboard. The components were placed in such a way that the least amount of area was used while
still maintaining a sense of order. Below, the multiple stages of the Butterworth band-pass filter
can be seen in both the final 2D and 3D schematics.
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Fig 4.7: The deigned Butterworth band-pass filter in Ultiboard.

Fig 4.8: The 3D Design of Band-Pass Filter in Ultiboard.

4.4 Minimum Detection Circuit

The envelope detection circuit was first built on a normal breadboard and tested at
multiple frequencies using a sine wave supplied via a signal generator. The figures below show
how the circuit looked on the breadboard, as well as the responses it had for a sine wave of 50
Hz and 10 KHz respectively.
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Fig 4.9: Envelope detection circuit implemented on a breadboard.

Fig 4.10: Envelope detection at low frequency (50 Hz).

The input wave is colored orange and output wave is colored blue.
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Fig 4.11: Envelope detection at high frequency (10 kHz).

The input wave is colored orange and output wave is colored blue.

The figures above show that the envelope detection circuit gave expected results. For
lower frequencies a small ripple is found and at higher frequencies the ripple almost completely
disappears.
Moving on, the circuit was then moved to a more compact PCB board design. National
Instruments’ Ultiboard was used in order to best build the circuit design. The figures below show
the final 2D and 3D designs from Ultiboard.

Fig 4.12: The 2D Design of Envelope Detection circuit in Ultiboard.

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Fig 4.13: The 3D Design of Envelope Detection circuit in Ultiboard.

Since the envelope detection circuit will be directly connected to the bandpass filter, this
group found that the two schematics should be merged in order to have a more complete and neater
schematic. This can be seen in the figures below.

Fig 4.14: The combined Band-Pass Filter and Envelope Detection circuits in Ultiboard.
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Fig 4.15: 3D Design of combined Band-Pass Filter and Minimum Detection circuit in Ultiboard.
Then, we combined the welded designs of Band-Pass Filter and envelope detection circuits
together to be as shown in the figure bellow and in a way that could keep the organization of both
circuits simple (not complicated) and obvious.

Fig 4.16: Combined Band-Pass Filter and Envelope Detection circuits on PCB.
 Page 72

Moving on the minimum detection circuit was first designed in Ultiboard and welded to
PCB board and can be seen in the figures below.

Fig 4.17: The 2D Design of Minimum Detection circuit in Ultiboard.

Fig 4.18: The 3D Design of Minimum Detection circuit in Ultiboard.

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Fig 4.19: Minimum detection circuit on PCB.

4.5 Microcontroller Coding

The microcontroller code was written using the Arduino IDE. The code was structured
such that three inputs were taken from the ZCD, minimum detection, and shunt resistance circuits
respectively. If and only if all three inputs were high, then a value of high was outputted from the
microcontroller which acted as the tripping signal to the circuit breaker.
The ZCD input proved to be the most complex to code. Since arcing usually occurs around
the zero-crossing and not exactly at the zero-crossing, a delay was used when observing the zero-
crossing. Meaning that if the voltage had crossed the time-axis then the input would be read as
high for a short period of time afterwards.
Besides this complication regarding the ZCD, the rest of the code was easy to implement
and testing proved that the code did work.
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4.6 Testing the Complete Prototype

Upon connecting all components together, the circuits were tested using a hair dryer. Hair
dryers may produce high frequencies similar to those of arcing and for this reason it would be
suitable for testing. In this case no tripping signal was sent. Confirming the correct operation of
the arc fault protection system.
Switching from the hair dryer to the arc generator, it can be seen from the figure below that
the circuit eventually switches off after an arc fault occurs that exceeds the predetermined arc fault
threshold.

Fig 4.20: Operation of arcing protection system.[14]

 Page 75

It can be seen from the figure that arcing usually occurs when there is a high rate of
change in the current. This results in small pulses of arcing. After minimum detection is done the
arcing pulses are counted and above a threshold a tripping signal is sent to the circuit breaker.
 Page 76

CHAPTER 5

EVALUATION
 Page 77

5.1 Introduction

The focus of this chapter will be on evaluating the project completely. This will be done
by looking at the different impacts this project may have ethically, economically, socially, and in
terms of marketing. Also included in this chapter are the results of a survey written and conducted
by the team members, alongside a discussion of the survey responses.

5.2 Meeting Objectives

Each project should include a timeline chart. Timelines help provide information to
readers regarding estimates of how long projects take. Based on this the group chose the bar type
chart of Henry Gantt to be included in this paper. We will be designing two timeline charts for
phase one and two of our project. The chart in phase one will be broken down in to nine tasks
that must be done through each phase. These nine tasks are the followings:

1. Capstone Course.
2. Research and Selecting a Topic.
3. Preparing Proposal and submitting it.
4. Writing Introduction.
5. Writing Conclusion.
6. Writing the Part of Design and Analysis.
7. Finishing Capstone one report.
 Page 78

Figure 5.1: Henry Gantt chart for Capstone phase one.

In the next following chart, we have seven elements that help us track our progress in this phase.
These elements are the followings:

1. Capstone Course.
2. Researching and ordering Component.
3. Implementation of the system.
4. Writing down our observation on the implementation.
5. Writing down the Evaluation and Conclusion.
6. Finalizing the report
7. Capstone Presentation.

Figure 5.2: Henry Gantt chart for Capstone phase two.

 Page 79

5.3 Ethical Evaluation

When it comes to the subparts of our project evaluation, ethics is seen as one of the most
important. The ethical evaluation of this project will be done based on any perceived ethical issues
that may arise of which there are four categories.
The first category encompasses any issues that may come up in designs, testing, and sales.
To avoid any issues in this first category, the team strictly follows and adheres to IEEE standards
with a lot of testing taking place to ensure that the protection system functions correctly and
efficiently. In addition to this, this project team carefully compared the budget to survey responses
in order to recommend a price point that is suitable for most people at different socioeconomic
levels.
Second category, issues can arise as well in the project team. This can be reflected in the
way the team members dealt with each other, the team members believe, and norm. The team of
the project where very respect full to one another and very collaborators. Also, the team believes,
and norms support the point anything we do should be for the sake of human benefit.
The third category discusses issues regarding the final product in terms of lack of safety
and inefficiency. This team did their best to maximize safety for the end user. We advise that
homeowners implore the help aid of trained professionals when it comes to installing this
protection device. In terms of reliability, the team tried to maximize this by imploring three ways
of making sure an arcing fault is occurring. Moreover, the project itself revolves around preventing
the loss of human life and protecting homes and businesses from devastating accidental fires.
The fourth and final ethical category involves the truthfulness of the obtained and presented
data. This project cited any outside sources used in order to respect not only the copyright of their
authors, but also the time and effort of their research. Whereas, new data provided here and
presented with the necessary design steps that can allow any others to apply and validate if needed.
 Page 80

5.4 Economic Evaluation

Most people will look at their home as being their most vital asset. When all other things
are not going as planned, they can at least look to the roof that they have over their head and be
thankful. Unfortunately, when electrical discharges occur and cause home fires their impact can
be devastating not only in terms of the harm they may cause to the people around them, but also
to the home itself. Damages can run homeowners in excess of tens of thousands of dollars and in
extreme cases the house can be completely ruined.
The economic security that this project’s protection system may provide is invaluable.
Protecting home and business owners from costs that could bankrupt them completely for a one-
time charge of purchasing and installing a protection system.
This protection system should also affect local rescue services. Fire departments and
hospitals would potentially see a fall in the number of calls they receive throughout the year. This
will allow rescue teams to save their manpower, time, and budget for other matters.

5.5 Social Evaluation

Electrical safety is one of the most essential safety measurements in all industry due to the
mass usage of electricity, that being said; Arcing Protection System has changed the framework
of the human society. In the society, almost everyone uses electricity and electrical fires tends to
occur now and then with a big ratio, thus, using Arcing Protection Systems saves and will save
many people. With the development of the technology, manufacturing, repairing and
experimenting electricity is used. Society will always be in the need of such protection systems,
since it makes their life safer.

5.6 Marketing Evaluation

Based on the survey that we did, the salary of the people who took the survey were from 0
to 500 KD. Also, most of them were willing to pay from 75 to 150 KD, keeping in mind that most
 Page 81

of the people who took the survey are students. So, this means that the price is not a problem, and
what they are looking for is function and quality.

5.7 Survey

This team believes that an important way of evaluating this project should be done through
conducting a survey. Surveys allow researchers to garner unbiased opinions from a large audience
at a very low cost. We are able to do so electronically using web services at the convenience of
ourselves and the public domain. The conducted survey had a total of thirteen carefully picked
questions and obtained a total of one hundred and eighty-five respondents.

Figure 5.3: Shows the gender of the sample.

The survey found that from a total 183 responses roughly 60% were men and 40% were
women. This data should give a well-rounded view of how both men and women deal with
electrical problems here in Kuwait.
 Page 82

Figure 5.4: Shows the age of the sample.

From the total population, a large majority of respondents fell between the ages of 18 to
27. This set represents the next generation of home and business owners, who will be looking at
installing newer, more reliable, and more advanced protection systems into these buildings and
shops. As opposed to the current generation of homeowners that may not be as willing to change
their electrical infrastructure.

Figure 5.5: Shows if people own a home or a business.

From the 184 respondents, we see that 20.65% of submitters own a home. On the other
hand, 79.35% of them do not own a house. And this is due to the age of majority of the sample
 Page 83

fulling between 18-27 years. This gives us a vision or a good understanding of the future home’s
owners. Also, it shows that the target customers for our protection system can be less than 21%
of the Kuwaiti population. However, this does not mean that the need for our product is so low,
basically it is the opposite where almost each one of the non-home owners want their homes to
be as safe as possible.

Figure 5.6: Shows how familiar people with building electrical wiring.

When it comes to knowing if people are familiar with a building electricals’ wiring, the
sample shows that more than fifty percent are not familiar with it. We can say that is kind of the
reason way there is high rate of home firs.
 Page 84

Figure 5.7: Shows if the sample experienced or heard of an electrical fire.

From the graph, we can see that more than 50% of the sample experienced or heard of an
electrical fire. This shows us that people are aware of the damages that an electricals’ wiring can
result in if something went wrong in it.

Figure 5.8: Shows the percentage of home’s fires.

From the above diagram, we can see that quite good percentages of home’s fires are from
the damaged wires which is one of the causes of arc fault. Also, it supports the point that
 Page 85

protection system against arcing is a need and reach field that help developing this kind of
protection system and try to make them as reliable, sensitive, and accurate as possible.

Figure 5.9: Shows if person ever heard about or dealt with electrical protection systems before.

One of the survey questions is have the person ever heard about or dealt with electrical
protection systems before? The result where that more than 60% of the sample did not heard
about or dealt with these kind of protection systems. This can help us understand that people
need more awareness and workshops to be more familiar with the electrical protection systems.

Figure 5.10: Shows how important a protection system is

 Page 86

From the graph we can say that the majority of the population sees that electrical
protection systems are very important. This support the team perspective of the arcing protection
system which is view the arcing protection system is a need of every building.

.
Figure 5.11: Shows if people believes that electric protection system devices can reduce physical
damages for electrical equipment.

From the graph we can see that 89.56% of our sample that we picked believed in the
significance of the electric protection systems, which as well support the point that the electric
protection systems are a need in the markets.

Figure 5.12: Shows the most important characteristic to an electric protection system.

The graph show that people cares almost only about two characteristics in the protection
system which they are the high response time and high accuracy. This helps as in our project
 Page 87

where it shows what kind of things we should focus on while we are building our protection
system.

Figure 5.13: Shows how much people are willing to pay for protection system against home fire.

Figure 5.14: Shows how much are people willing to pay fort an electric protection system
against home fire
 Page 88

.
From figure 5.13 and figure 5.14, we can see respectively that more than 50% of the people
have a salary between 0 to 500KD, and 35.87% of the people are willing to buy a protection system
that coast around 76 KWD to 150 KWD. Also, in figure5.X.12, 30.98% can pay for a protection
system its price is up to 75 KWD. These two graphs can help us build an approximation budget
for one protection system to fully be build, where we can sale it and get a revenue out of it. It is
important to mention that the majority are willing to pay up to 150 KWD because the majority of
our sample have salary rang up to 500 KWD. Maybe if our sample included more people with high
salaries, the money people are willing to spend on a protection system will be much higher.

5.8 Summary

This chapter discussed the ethical, economical, and social aspects of this project and this
team feels that it has done so comprehensively. The sections spoke to how everything done
throughout this project was done ethically and included issues such as how team members have
dealt with each other, as well as how the final project meets any ethical standards set forth towards
the community.
This research also shows how economically valuable this project is as it will theoretically
decrease costs incurred by the government when it comes to dealing with home fires in the sense
of fire departments and ambulance rescue teams. As well as the potential costs that the
homeowners themselves will not suffer (along with any neighboring buildings in cases where the
fire may spread).
The survey data collected also shows the impressions and reactions people may or will
have towards this finished product. With a sufficiently large sample space pf over 180 responses,
this team feels as though it has obtained adequate data that will aid in moving forward and
determining things such as product price and market segment.
All in all, this team feels that the evaluation done in Chapter 5 has been quite complete and
appropriate that they may now move forward.
 Page 89

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSIONS &
FUTURE WORK
 Page 90

6.1 Introduction

This chapter will act as a summary of the project as a whole. Objectives and goals set at
the beginning of the project will be rehashed and reviewed in terms of their completion. Any
difficulties during implementation will also be touched on in addition to how they were overcome.
A brief section on how to evolve the project further will also be discussed in a future works section,
in addition to any other opportunities this group expects in regards to the arc protection system.

6.2 Evaluation of Objectives

When this project began, all four team members sat down and came up with what they believed
to be four very important objectives. The objectives were seen as the most imperative aspects of a
functioning arc fault protection system. The initial objectives set by this team were as follows:

● Accurately detect the arc fault before it may cause serious damage.
● Send a tripping signal to the circuit breaker in a timely manner.
● System should only trip in the presence of an arc fault.
● Noise resembling arcing should be ignored by the system.

This team feels that it has been able to detect the presence of an arc fault in an extremely timely
manner. The current protection system is virtually instantaneous in terms of how fast it can detect
the presence of an arc fault, as well as how fast a tripping signal is delivered to the circuit breaker.
This team also believes that after thoroughly researching the frequency response of inductive
loads such as hair dryers and others that have similar footprint to arc faults, that a tripping signal
is only supplied when a true arc fault occurs.
All-in-all, this team finds that the objectives set by them at the start of this project have been
suitably met.
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6.3 Problems Faced

No matter how much preparatory work is done, every project will face some obstacles.
This section will list some of the problems faced throughout the project, and the steps taken in
order to overcome them. Five main problems were observed and are listed below:

1. Contacting suppliers and distributors for components became a major issue.

2. Unavailability of a 240 V power supply which operates at a high frequency.
3. Mathematically modelling arc faults.
4. Mismatching Multisim design components with their real-life counterpart.
5. Time conflicts amongst the team members, the university laboratory hours, classes,
exams, and scheduling in general.
6. Troubleshooting errors and short circuits in Arduino Nano.

Firstly, components suppliers and distributors became an unexpected issue. For example,
in an attempt at ordering a high-frequency current transformer, after jumping through many
corporate hoops the team was finally told that these components were not allowed to be shipped
internationally. Eventually, the team decided to find the next best method of stepping down the
high-frequency signals components. This was done using a shunt resistance and proved to be a
satisfactory solution but was not as efficient.
Secondly, a 240 V source which can supply a voltage at a high frequency was not available
at the university. This was needed in order to simulate an arcing voltage to best test the circuitry.
However, this group overcame this issue by delving into arcing generators. A separate device
called an arc generator was built which could practically force an arcing fault to occur on demand.
This arc generator would take the place of the high frequency supply and be used to test the
functionality of the project.
Thirdly, mathematically modelling arc faults was a strenuous matter. The literature looked
at initially did not use MATLAB’s Simulink as their software of choice. Whereas, this team was
more accustomed to Simulink. As such, for this team to take predesigned arcing fault models move
them into Simulink for testing purposes took a lot of reading and learning.
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Fourthly, a problem was faced when moving from the Multisim design to actual
components. After designing and testing each block of the design in Multisim, the practical testing
gave dissimilar results. This forced the team to alter the type of components being used.
Fifthly, a major problem throughout this Capstone project was scheduling. Whether it be
classes, midterm exams, final exams, university hours, laboratory hours, or busy personal
schedules, finding an appropriate time to convene and collate work became more and more
difficult. The team was forced to divide work equally amongst members in order to work whenever
it was most convenient on the team member themselves.
Finally, during the implementation phase of the capstone one of the challenges faced was
troubleshooting the coding errors of the Arduino Nano. There was lack of information in the error
messages in which we were not able to identify the way that we should solve these problems such
as the improper port selection. Also, due to multiple short circuits in the prototype microcontrollers
became fried which resulted in even further delays.

6.4 Future Work

This team looks forward to entering this project into upcoming competitions and
conferences. Arc faults are a growing concern in electrical engineering and the comments received
about this project’s topic gives the impression that this is seen as suitable for a Master’s thesis or
PhD work. Therefore, this team feels that any continuing work that a team member would like to
do regarding this project may continue into their graduate educational levels.
This team would also like to venture more into microcontroller choices. Microcontrollers
looked at in this project were Arduino derivatives from a plethora of microcontroller
manufacturers. Having a broader knowledge regarding microcontrollers may allow this team to
find the most suitable controller needed for this project.
Another possible addition is adapting to the growing integration of internet to most
projects. Having the microcontroller send a notification to the homeowner via email, text, or app,
is another promising project extension. The notification would give the time and location at which
the arc fault occurred. Monthly reports could be aggregated showing total number of arc faults
occurring and if any equipment or wiring needs to be replaced.
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A final comment is about the budget. With a limited budget testing of the best possible
components was difficult. Given the chance, this team would like to do further testing for a few
things. For instance, testing multiple high-frequency current transformers for the filtering stage
instead of a shunt resistance.
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References

[1] Ayan Mukherjee, Aurobinda Routray, Anik Kumar Samanta, "Method for Online
Detection of Arcing in Low-Voltage Distribution Systems", Power Delivery IEEE
Transactions.
[2] B. B. Neiger and R. M. Bradley, “Arc fault detector with circuit interrupter and early arc
fault detection,” Patent, 18-Jun-2002.
[3] G. D. Gregory and G. W. Scott, “The arc-fault circuit interrupter, an emerging product,”
IEEE Xplore.
[4] K. L. Choo and A. A. Sa’adon, “Design of Arc Fault Detection Circuit in Low Voltage
Switchboard,” River publishers , 26-Nov-2016.
[5] M. Naidu , “Arc fault detector and method,” Patent, 07-Mar-2006.
[6] R. T. Elms and J. C. Scholetterer, “Arc fault detection apparatus and circuit breaker
incorporating same,” Patents, 10-Nov-1998.
[7] S. C. Wang , C. J. Wu , and Y. J. Wang , “Detection of Arc Fault on Low Voltage Power
Circuits in Time and Frequency Domain Approach,” INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF
CIRCUITS, SYSTEMS AND SIGNAL PROCESSING, Jun. 2012.
[8] R. Rajvanshi and T. Hawkins, "Value of Insulated Bus Bars in Reducing Arcing Fault
Duration in Low-Voltage Systems," in IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol.
52, no. 2, pp. 1280-1284, March-April 2016.
[9] D. A. Asfani, I. M. Y. Negara, D. Fahmi, R. Wiryatama, M. W. A. Haq and M. Wahyudi,
"Analysis of low voltage arcing characteristic on direct short circuit through arcing
thermal synchronization sensing and short circuit current," 2017 International Seminar
on Intelligent Technology and Its Applications (ISITIA), Surabaya, 2017, pp. 165-168.
[10] A. Gaudreau and B. Koch, "Evaluation of LV and MV Arc Parameters," in IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 487-492, Jan. 2008.
[11] C. E. Restrepo, "Arc Fault Detection and Discrimination Methods," Electrical Contacts -
2007 Proceedings of the 53rd IEEE Holm Conference on Electrical Contacts, Pittsburgh,
PA, 2007, pp. 115-122.
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[12] T. Gammon and J. Matthews, "The historical evolution of arcing-fault models for low-
voltage systems," 1999 IEEE Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Technical
Conference (Cat. No.99CH36371), Sparks, NV, USA, 1999, pp. 6 pp.
[13] L. Yuan, L. Sun, and H. Wu, “Simulation of Fault Arc Using Conventional Arc Models.”
Energy and Power Engineering, vol 05, no. 04, pp. 833-837, 2013.
[14] OEZ, “Application manual Arc fault detection devices AFDD”,tacnical report, 2017.
 Page 96

Appendix I - C++ Code

int LEDred = 2;

float lastCVolt = 5;

// the setup routine runs once when you press reset:

void setup() {

// initialize serial communication at 9600 bits per

second:

Serial.begin(9600);

pinMode(LEDred, OUTPUT);

// the loop routine runs over and over again forever:

void loop() {

// read the input on analog pin 0:

int InA = analogRead(A5);

int InB = analogRead(A6);

int InC = analogRead(A7);

// Convert the analog reading (which goes from 0 - 1023)

to a voltage (0 - 5V):

float AVolt = InA * (5.0 / 1023.0);

float BVolt = InB * (5.0 / 1023.0);

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float CVolt = InC * (5.0 / 1023.0);

// print out the value you read:

if (CVolt >= 0 && CVolt <= 3.5 )

CVolt = 0;

else

CVolt = 1;

Serial.println(CVolt);

if (AVolt <= 5.5 && BVolt <= 5.5) {

if (CVolt == lastCVolt || lastCVolt == 5)

digitalWrite(LEDred, LOW);

else{

digitalWrite(LEDred, HIGH);

delay(15);

lastCVolt = CVolt;

}
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Appendix II- Arduino Mega

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Appendix III- Arduino Nano

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Appendix IV- Arduino Uno

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Appendix V- Arduino Due

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