SET Theory

Discrete Mathematics - Sets

German mathematician G. Cantor introduced the concept of Sets. He had

defined a Set as a collection of definite and distinguishable objects selected by the
means of certain rules or description.

Set Theory forms the basis of several other fields of study like Counting Theory,
Relations, Graph Theory and Finite State Machines.

Set - Definition

A set is an unordered collection of different elements.

A set can be written explicitly by listing its elements using set bracket.

If the order of the elements is changed or any element of a set is repeated, it does
not make any changes in the set.

Some Example of Sets

1. A set of all positive integers.

2. A set of all the planets in the solar system.

3. A set of all the states in India.

4. A set of all the lowercase letters of the alphabet.

Representation of a Set

Sets can be represented in two ways –

1. Roster or Tabular Form

2. Set Builder Notation

1. Roster or Tabular Form

The set is represented by listing all the elements comprising it.

The elements are enclosed within braces and separated by commas.

Example 1 — Set of vowels in English alphabet, A = {a,e,i,o,u}

Example 2 — Set of odd numbers less than 10, B = {1,3,5,7,9}

2. Set Builder Notation

The set is defined by specifying a property that elements of the set have in
common.

The set is described as A={x:p(x)}

Example 1 —The set {a,e,i,o,u} is written as —

A = {x: x is a vowel in English alphabet}

Example 2 —The set {1,3,5,7,9} is written as —

B = {x: 1≤x<10 and (x%2) ≠ 0}

If an element x is a member of any set S, it is denoted by x ∈ S

and if an element y is not a member of set S, it is denoted by y ∉ S.

Example 3 —If S = {1,1.2,1.7,2}

Here, 1∈ S but 1.5 ∉ S

Some Important Sets:

N — The set of all Natural Numbers = {1,2,3,4,.....}

(also called Positive Integers, Counting Numbers, or Natural Numbers)

W — The set of all Whole Numbers = {0,1,2,3,4,.....}

This is the set of natural numbers, plus zero

Z — The set of all Integers = {.....,—3,—2,—1,0,1,2,3,.....}

An integer is any number in the infinite set.

Z+ — The set of all Positive Integers = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, ....}

Z- — The set of all Negative Integers = {………..,-4, -3, -2, -1}

Q — The set of all Rational Numbers

A Rational Number is a type of Real Number, which is in the form of p/q where q
is not equal to zero.

Any fraction with non-zero denominators is a rational number.

Example: Rational numbers are 1/2, 1/5, 3/4, etc.

It is the set of all quotients of integers.

R — The set of all Real numbers

Real numbers include Rational Numbers like positive and negative Integers,
Fractions, and Irrational Numbers.

In other words, any number that we can think of, except Complex Numbers, is a
Real Number.

Example: R = {… -3, -√2, -½, 0, 1, 1.5, 16,….}

Types of Sets

Sets can be classified into many types.

Some of which are Finite, Infinite, Subset, Universal, Singleton set, Empty set etc.

1. Empty Set or Null Set - An Empty Set contains no elements. It is denoted by

Ø. The cardinality of Empty Set or null set is zero.

Example – S = {x| x N and 4<x<5} = Ø

2. Singleton Set or Unit Set- Singleton Set or Unit Set contains only one
element. A S ingleton Set is denoted by {s}.

Example – S = {x| x N and 7<x<9} = {8}

3. Finite Set – A set which contains a definite number of elements is called as a
Finite Set.

Example – S = {x | x  N and 70 > x > 50}

4. Infinite Set – A set which contains infinite number of elements is called an

Infinite Set.

Example – S = {x | x  N and x > 10}

 Properties of Finite and Infinite Sets

If a given set is Finite, then the following properties exist:

o The Subsets of a Finite set are always Finite.

o The Union as well as the Intersection of the given Finite set results in a
Finite set.
o For a Finite set, the Power set is also Finite.
o For Finite sets, the Cartesian Product is also Finite.
o The Cardinal Number for a Finite set is a definite number.

If a given set is Infinite, then the following properties exist:

o The Union result of Infinite sets is always Infinite.

o For the given Infinite sets the Power set is also Infinite.
o The resultant Superset of an Infinite set is also Infinite.
o The Subset for an Infinite set can or cannot be Infinite. This depends on
the number of elements in a given Subset.

5. Subset – A Set X is a subset of Set Y (i.e. X ⊆ Y) if every element of X is an

element of Set Y.

Example – Let X={1,2,3} and Y={1,2,3}.

Here, Set Y is a subset (not a proper subset) of Set X as all the elements of
Set Y is in Set X. Hence, we can write Y ⊆ X.

6. Proper Subset - The term “Proper Subset” can be defined as “Subset of but
not equal to”.

A Set X is a Proper Subset of Set Y (Written as X ⊂ Y) if every element of X is an

element of set Y and |A|<| X|

Example – Let X={1,2,3,4,5,6} and Y={1,2}

Here, Set Y ⊂ X since all elements in Y are contained in X too and X has at
least one element more than Set Y.
 Note: Subset is represented by ⊆ symbol.

7. Universal Set - It is a collection of all elements in a particular context or

application. All the sets in that context or application are essentially subsets of
this universal set.

Universal sets are represented as ‘U’.

Example — We may define U as the set of all animals on earth. In this case, set
of all mammals is a subset of U, set of all fishes is a subset of U, set of all insects
is a subset of U, and so on.

8. Equal Set - If two sets contain the same elements, they are said to be equal.

Example – If A = {1,2,6} and B = {6,1,2} they are equal as every element of Set
A is an element of Set B and every element of Set B is an element of Set A.

9. Equivalent Set - If the cardinalities of two sets are same, they are called
equivalent sets.

Example – If A = {1,2,6} and B = {16,17,22} they are equivalent as cardinality of

Set A is equal to the cardinality of Set B.
i.e. |A| = |B| = 3

10. Overlapping Set - Two sets that have at least one common element are called
Overlapping Sets.

In case of Overlapping Sets —

(i) n(AUB) = n(A) + n(B) – n(AB)
(ii) n(AUB) = n(A - B) + n(B - A) + n(AB)
(iii) n(A) = n(A-B) + n(AB)
(iv) n(B) = n(B-A) + n(AB)

Example – Let A = {1,2,6} and B = {6,12,42}

There is a common element ‘6’, hence these sets are overlapping sets.
11. Disjoint Sets - Two sets A and B are called disjoint sets if they do not
have even one element in common.

Therefore, Disjoint Sets have the following properties —

(i) n(A∩B) = Ø
(ii) n(AUB) = n(A)+n(B)

Example — Let A= {1,2,6} and B={7,9,14} there is not a single common

element, hence these sets are overlapping sets.

Venn Diagrams

Venn Diagrams, invented in 1880 by John Venn, is a schematic diagram that

shows all possible logical relations between different mathematical sets.

Set Operations

Set Operations include Set Union, Set Intersection, Set Difference, Complement
of Set, and Cartesian Product.

1. Set Union - The Union of Sets A and B (denoted by AU B ) is the set of elements
which are in A, in B, or in both A and B. Hence, AUB = {x|xA OR xB}

Example — If A = {10,11,12,13} and B = {13,14,15}

Then, AUB = {10,1 1,12,13,14,15}

Note: The common element occurs only once.

2. Set Intersection - The Intersection of sets A and B (denoted by AB ) is the
set of elements which are in both A and B. Hence, AB = {x |xA AND xB}

Example — If A = {11,12,13} and B = {13,14,15}, then AB = {13}

3. Set Difference - The set difference of sets A and B (denoted by A – B) is the

set of elements which are only in A but not in B.
Hence, A – B = {x |xA AND xB}

Example — If A = {10,11,12,13} and B={13,14,15},

Then, (A – B) ={10,11,12} and (B – A) ={14,15}

Here, (A – B) ≠(B – A)

Venn diagram of A - B

4. Complement of a Set: The Complement of a Set A (denoted by A′ or Ac ) is the

set of elements which are not in Set A. Hence, A′ = {x |xA}

Also, A′ = (U – A), where U is the Universal set which contains all objects.
Example 1 — If A = {x |x Odd Numbers}

Then, A′ = {y |y Odd Numbers}

Example 2 — If U = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12} and A = {4, 6, 8}

Then, A′ = {2, 10, 12}

5. Cartesian Product / Cross Product:

The Cartesian Product of n numbers of sets A1,A2,A3,……,An denoted as A1

X A2 X A3 X ……… X An can be defined as all possible ordered pairs
(x1,x2,x3,……,xn) where x1A1,x2A2,x3A3,…….,xnAn

Example 1 — If we take two sets A = {a,b} and B = {1,2}

The Cartesian Product of A and B

A X B = {(a,1), (a,2), (b,1), (b,2)}

The Cartesian Product of B and A

B X A = {(1,a), (1,b), (2,a), (2,b)}

Example 2 – If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}

Then,

(1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5)

AXB= (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5)

(3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5)

6. Power Set - Power Set of a set S is the set of all subsets of S including the
Empty Set.

The cardinality of a Power Set of a set S of cardinality n is 2n.

Power set is denoted as P(S).

Example —

For a Set S = {a,b,c,d}

Then the Subsets are calculated as —

i. Subsets with 0 elements — {} (Empty Set)

ii. Subsets with 1 element — {a},{b},{c},{d}
iii. Subsets with 2 elements — {a,b},{a,c},{a,d},{b,c},{b,d},{c,d}
iv. Subsets with 3 elements — {a,b,c},{a,b,d},{a,c,d},{b,c,d}
v. Subsets with 4 elements — {a,b,c,d}

Hence,

P(S) ={{},{a},{b},{c},{d},{a,b},{a,c},{a,d},{b,c},{b,d},{c,d},{a,b,c},{a,b,d},{a,c,d},{b,c,d},{a,b,c,d}}

|P(S)| = 24 = 16

Properties of Power Set

 It is much larger than the original set.

 The number of elements in the power set of A is 2n, where n is the number
of elements in set A.
 The Power Set of a countable finite set is countable.
 P(S) of set S, if operated with the union of sets, the intersection of sets
and complement of sets, denotes the example of Boolean Algebra.
Example 1:

If A = 

Then, P(A) = {}

Note: |A| = 0, |P(A)| = 20 = 1

Example 2:

If A = {x, y, z}

Then, P(A) = {, {x}, {y}, {z}, {x, y}, {x, z}, {y, z}, {x, y, z}}

Question:

The Power Set of AUB, where A={2, 3, 5, 7} and B = {2, 5, 8, 9} is _______.

(a) 256 (b) 64 (c) 16 (d) 4

Solution:

AUB = {2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9}

|AUB| = 6

P(AUB) = 2 ^ 6 = 64
Practice Questions

Q.1 Let A = {x : x is a natural number and a factor of 18} and

B = {x : x is a natural number and less than 6}.

Find A U B.

Solution:

A = {1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18}

B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Therefore, A U B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 18}

Q.2 Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8} and C = {1, 3, 5, 7}

Verify (A U B) U C = A U (B U C)

Solution:

(A U B) U C = A U (B U C)

L.H.S. = (A U B) U C

A U B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8}

(A U B) U C = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} .................... (1)

R.H.S. = A U (B U C)

B U C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

A U (B U C) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} .................... (2)

Therefore, from (1) and (2) we conclude that:

(A U B) U C = A U (B U C) [Verified]
Q.3 Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Y = {2, 3, 5} and Z = {4, 5, 6}.

(i) Verify X U Y = Y U X

(ii) Verify (X U Y) U Z = X U (Y U Z)

Solution:

(i) X U Y = Y U X

L.H.S = X U Y = {1, 2, 3, 4} U {2, 3, 4} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

R.H.S. = Y U X = {2, 3, 5} U {1, 2, 3, 4} = {2, 3, 5, 1, 4}

Therefore, X U Y = Y U X [Verified]

(ii) (X U Y) U Z = X U (Y U Z)

L.H.S. = (X U Y) U Z

X U Y = {1, 2, 3, 4} U {2, 3, 5} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Now, (X U Y) U Z = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} U {4, 5, 6} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

R.H.S. = X U (Y U Z)

Y U Z = {2, 3, 5} U {4, 5, 6} = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

Now, X U (Y U Z) = {1, 2, 3, 4} U {2, 3, 4, 5, 6} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

Therefore, (X U Y) U Z = X U (Y U Z) [Verified]
Q.4 Let A = {x : x is a natural number and a factor of 18}

B = {x : x is a natural number and less than 6}.

Find A  B.

Solution:

A = {1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18}

B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Therefore, A  B = {1, 2, 3}

Q.5 If P = {Multiples of 3 between 1 and 20}

Q = {Even Natural numbers upto 15}

Find the intersection of the two given sets P and Q.

Solution:

P = {Multiples of 3 between 1 and 20} = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18}

Q = {Even Natural numbers upto 15} = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}

Therefore, P  Q = {6, 12}

Q.6 Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8} and C = {1, 3, 5, 7}

Verify (A  B)  C = A  (B  C)

Solution:

L.H.S. = (A  B)  C

A  B = {2, 4}

(A  B)  C = Ø .................... (1)

R.H.S. = A  (B  C)

BC=Ø

A  (B  C) = Ø .................... (2)

Therefore, from (1) and (2) we conclude that:

(A  B)  C = A  (B  C) [Verified]

Q.7 Given the three sets P, Q and R such that:

P = {x: x is a Natural Number between 10 and 16}

Q = {y: y is an Even Numbers between 8 and 20}

R = {7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 20}

Find:

(i) P – Q (ii) Q – R (iii) R – P (iv) Q – P

Solution:

P = {11, 12, 13, 14, 15}

Q = {10, 12, 14, 16, 18}

R = {7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 20}

(i) P – Q = {11, 13, 15}

(ii) Q – R = {10, 12, 16}
(iii) R – P = {7, 9, 18, 20}
(iv) Q – P = {10, 16, 18}

Q. 8 If A = {1, 3, 5}, B = {3, 5, 6} and C = {1, 3, 7}

(i) Verify that A U (B  C) = (A U B)  (A U C)

(ii) Verify that A  (B U C) = (A  B) U (A  C)

Solution:
(i) A U (B  C) = (A U B)  (A U C)

L.H.S. = A U (B  C)
(B  C) = {3}
A U (B  C) = {1, 3, 5} U {3} = {1, 3, 5} ……………………………… (1)

R.H.S. = (A U B)  (A U C)
(A U B) = {1, 3, 5} U {3, 5, 6} = {1, 3, 5, 6}
(A U C) = {1, 3, 5} U {1, 3, 7} = {1, 3, 5, 7}
(A U B)  (A U C) = {1, 3, 5, 6}  {1, 3, 5, 7} = {1, 3, 5}…………….(2)

From (1) and (2) we conclude that:

A U (B  C) = (A U B)  (A U C) [Verified]
(ii) A  (B U C) = (A  B) U (A  C)

L.H.S. = A  (B U C)
(B U C) = {3, 5, 6} U {1, 3, 7} = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7}
A  (B U C) = {1, 3, 5}  {1, 3, 5, 6, 7} = {1, 3, 5} ……………………(1)

R.H.S. = (A  B) U (A  C)
(A  B) = {1, 3, 5}  {3, 5, 6} = {3, 5}
(A  C) = {1, 3, 5}  {1, 3, 7} = {1, 3}
(A  B) U (A  C) = {3, 5} U {1, 3} = {1, 3, 5} ……………………..…(2)

From (1) and (2) we conclude that:

A  (B U C) = (A  B) U (A  C) [Verified]

Practice Questions on Power Sets

1. Which of the following is not the element of power set of {2,3}?

(a) Φ (b) {2} (c) {{2,3}} (d) {2,3}

2. If a set A has 3 elements then find the number of elements in power set of
set A.

(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 8 (d) 27

3. If set A = {1,2,3} then which of the following is incorrect?

(a) Φ∈A (b) Φ∈P(A) (c) Φ⊂A (d) Φ⊂P(A)

4. How many elements are there in P(A), if A = φ?

(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4

5. If A = {a, b, c} then P(A) = {{a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {b, c}, {a, c}, {a, b, c}}.

(a) True

(b) False

6. Cardinality of the power set of {0, 1, 2 . . ., 6} is _________

(a) 1024 (b) 4096 (c) 512 (d) 128

7. If a set A={x: x is a prime number less than 4}

then n[P(P(A))] is ______________

(a) 8 (b) 16 (c) 32 (d) 64

8. If set A={Φ} then P(A) is ___________

(a) {Φ} (b) {{Φ}} (c) {Φ, {Φ}} (d) Φ

Solutions:

Solution 1:

Answer: c

Explanation: Power set of set A is set of all subsets of set A. Each element of
power set is subset of the given set. Subsets of {2,3} is φ, {2}, {3}, {2,3}

Solution 2:

Answer: c

Explanation: Power set of set A is set of all subsets of set A

Set with m elements has 2m subsets
So, number of elements in power set of set A is 23=8

Solution 3:

Answer: a

Explanation: Null set is subset of every set so, φ⊂P(A) and φ⊂A.
Since φ ⊂A and power set of set A is set of all subsets of set A so, φ∈P(A).
Hence, φ∈A is incorrect.

Solution 4:

Answer: a

Explanation: If A = φ then n(A)=0. Set with m elements has 2m subsets

So, number of elements in P(A) is 20=1. P(A) = {φ}

Solution 5:

Answer: b

Explanation: A= {a, b, c}
Possible subsets of set A are φ, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {b, c}, {a, c}, {a, b, c}
So, P(A) = {φ, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {b, c}, {a, c}, {a, b, c}}
Solution 6:

Answer: d

Explanation: Given set has 7 elements from 0 to 6

So, power set of the given set has 27 i.e. 128 elements
Hence, Cardinality of the power set of {0, 1, 2 . . ., 6} is 128

Solution 7:

Answer: b

Explanation: A={2,3}. Power set of A i.e. P(A) has 22=4 elements

n[P(A)]=4
P(P(A)) has 24=16 elements
n[P(P(A))] is 16

Solution 8:

Answer: c

Explanation: Set A={φ} => Set A has one element φ

So, Subsets of set A are φ, {φ}

So, P(A) = {{φ, {φ}}