INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING

Mandefro Beshahwured
[email protected]

Department of Electromechanical Engineering (Mechatronics)

December 14, 2021

 Content I

1 INTRODUCTION

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 MEASUREMENTS

The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or the

result of comparison between the quantity (whose magnitude is un-
known) & a predefined standard. Since two quantities are com-
pared, the result is expressed in numerical values.
BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF MEASUREMENT:
The standard used for comparison purposes must be
accurately defined & should be commonly accepted.
The apparatus used & the method adopted must be provable.
MEASURING INSTRUMENT:
It may be defined as a device for determining the value or magni-
tude of a quantity or variable.

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 Functions of Measurement systems
Measurements are made or measurement systems are set up for
one or more of the following functions:
a) To monitor processes and operations
b) To control processes and operations
c) To carry out some analysis
Monitoring:- Thermometers, barometers, anemometers, water, gas
and electricity meters only indicate certain quantities. Their read-
ings do not perform any control function in the normal sense. These
measurements are made for monitoring purposes only.
Control:-The thermostat in a refrigerator or geyser determines the
temperature of the relevant environment and accordingly switches
off or on the cooling or heating mechanism to keep the temperature
constant, i.e. to control the temperature. A single system some-
times may require many controls.
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For example, an aircraft needs controls from gyroscopes, angle-of-
attack sensors, thermo-couples, accelerometer, etc.
Analysis:- test the validity of predictions from theories, build empir-
ical models, i.e. relationships between parameters and quantities
associated with a problem, and characterize materials, devices and
components. In general, these requirements may be called analy-
sis.
Measurement units
???

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 FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN
INSTRUMENT:
Most of the measurement systems contain three main functional
elements.
1. Primary sensing element (sensor)
2. Variable conversion element (Signal Conditioning Element (SCE))
3. Data presentation element.
Primary sensing element:-The quantity under measurement makes
its first contact with the primary sensing element of a measurement
system. i.e., the measurand- (the unknown quantity which is to be
measured) is first detected by primary sensor which gives the out-
put in a different analogous form. This output is then converted into
an electrical signal by a transducer - (which converts energy from
one form to another). The first stage of a measurement system is
known as a detector transducer stage.
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sensor is the element that gives an output that is proportional to the
input applied to it. In general the output is in an electrical format as
this is the most suitable format for later use (in processing, trans-
mission and storage). The input format depends on the variable
to be measured (e.g., temperature, pressure, humidity, pH, speed,
acceleration, light). Sensors usually have a near linear relationship,
although this is not always the case.
Variable conversion element:- When the output variable of a pri-
mary sensor is in an unsuitable (or inconvenient) format, a signal
conditioning element is used to convert it to a suitable form. For
example, the change in resistance of a strain gauge cannot be di-
rectly measured and thus a deflection type bridge circuit is used to
convert it to a suitable voltage. Bridge circuits are examples of sig-
nal conditioning elements. Another example is the amplification of
a very weak signal such as a biomedical signal (such as that used
in an electrocardiogram ECG). The combination of the sensor and
the signal conditioning element (SCE) is called the transducer.
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Signal Processing Element (SPE): This component is needed to
improve the quality of the signal. A very common example is fil-
tering a signal that contains mains frequency noise (i.e., 50 Hz).
Convert an analogue signal to a digital format. The combination of
the sensor, SCE and SPE is called the transmitter.
Signal Transmission:- cable, fiber optics, wireless
Transmission can be done by: Cable Transmission suffers from the
problem of losses and attenuation especially over long distances
and from electromagnetic interference. The cable is screened to
reduce noise interference. Where the distance is long and losses
become excessive, repeaters are needed at regular distances to
re-amplify the signal.
Fiber optics: Fiber optic cables are now more widely used. it offer
some advantages: resistant to interference by electric and mag-
netic fields, have low losses over long distances (as opposed to
copper cable that might need repeaters at long distances, e.g., 2
km), but high costly, require special testing and repairing equip-
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The term signal conditioning includes many other functions in ad-
dition to Variable conversion & Variable manipulation. In fact the
element that follows the primary sensing element in any instrument
or measurement system is called conditioning element.
NB. When the elements of an instrument are actually physically
separated, it becomes necessary to transmit data from one to an-
other. The element that performs this function is called a data trans-
mission element.
Data presentation element:-
The information about the quantity under measurement has to be
conveyed to the personnel handling the instrument or the system
for monitoring, control, or analysis purposes. This function is done
by data presentation element.
In case data is to be monitored, visual display devices are needed.
These devices may be analog or digital indicating instruments like
ammeters, voltmeters etc.
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In case data is to be recorded, recorders like magnetic tapes, high
speed camera & TV equipment, CRT, printers may be used. For
control & analysis is purpose microprocessor or computers may
be used. The final stage in a measurement system is known as
terminating stage

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 Overview of variables that are measured
The following is a selection of the most widely measured quantities:
a. Electrical parameters: The basic seven parameters are: voltage,
current, resistance, capacitance, inductance, frequency and phase
shift. Other electrical parameters that are effectively derived from
the 7 above in terms of measurement are: power and power factor.
b. Magnetic: One of the magnetic parameters that can be directly
measured is the magnetic flux density.
c. Environmental variables such as: Temperature, pressure and
humidity.
d. Mechanical measurements such as: Mass, force, torque, length,
area, volume/capacity, angle and surface roughness.
e. Fluid measurements such as: Viscosity, level measurement and
flow measurement.
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f. Motion measurement such as: Translational motion and rotational
motion.
g. Others: Sound pressure, gas sensing and PH in solutions.
Characteristics of an Instrument The performance characteris-
tics of an instrument are mainly divided into two categories:
i) Static characteristics
ii) Dynamic characteristics

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 Static characteristics:
The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are used to
measure the quantities which are slowly varying with time or mostly
constant, i.e., do not vary with time, is called static characteristics.
The various static characteristics are:
i) Accuracy
ii) Precision
iii) Sensitivity
iv) Linearity
v) Reproducibility
vi) Repeatability
vii) Resolution

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viii) Threshold
ix) Hysteresis
x) Stability
xi) Tolerance
xii) Range and span
Accuracy: It is the degree of closeness with the true value of the
quantity to be measured. The accuracy can be expressed in follow-
ing ways: The accuracy of an instrument indicates the deviation of
the reading from a known value accuracy is typically expressed as:
a. Percentage of full scale reading (upper range value). Example:
A 100 Kpa pressure gage having an accuracy of ± 1 % would be
accurate of 1 Kpa over the entire range of the gage.
b. Percentage of span. Example: A pressure gage has span of 200
Kpa, Accuracy of ± 0.5%

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Precision:
It is the measure of reproducibility i.e., given a fixed value of a quan-
tity, precision is a measure of the degree of agreement within a
group of measurements. The precision is composed of two charac-
teristics:
a) Conformity:
Consider a resistor having true value as 2385692 , which is being
measured by an ohmmeter. But the reader can read consistently,
a value as 2.4 M due to the non availability of proper scale. The
error created due to the limitation of the scale reading is a precision
error.

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b) Number of significant figures:
The precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of
significant figures, in which the reading is expressed. The signifi-
cant figures convey the actual information about the magnitude &
the measurement precision of the quantity.
Sensitivity:
The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured vari-
able to which the instrument responds. It is defined as the ratio of
the changes in the output of an instrument to a change in the value
of the quantity to be measured.
Thus, if the calibration curve is liner the sensitivity of the instrument
is the slope of the calibration curve.
If the calibration curve is not linear then the sensitivity varies with
the input.

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Inverse sensitivity or deflection factor is defined as the reciprocal of
sensitivity.
Inverse sensitivity or deflection factor = 1/ sensitivity
Linearity:
The linearity is defined as the ability to reproduce the input charac-
teristics symmetrically & linearly.
The curve shows the actual calibration curve & idealized straight
line.
Reproducibility:
It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be re-
peatedly measured. It is specified in terms of scale readings over a
given period of time.

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Repeatability:
Is the ability of an instrument to reproduce the same measurement
each time the same set of conditions is repeated. This does not
imply that the measurement is correct, but rather that the measure-
ment is the same each time.

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Resolution:
If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input value, it
will again be found that output does not change at all until a certain
increment is exceeded. This increment is called resolution. The
smallest increment of change in the measured value that can be
determined from the instrument readout scale
Threshold:
If the instrument input is increased very gradually from zero there
will be some minimum value below which no output change can be
detected. This minimum value defines the threshold of the instru-
ment.
Stability:
It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout
is specified operating life.

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Tolerance:
The maximum allowable error in the measurement is specified in
terms of some value which is called tolerance.
Range : The region between the limits within which a quantity is
measured, received or transmitted, expressed by starting the lower
and upper range values. Example: 0 to 150 oF, 20 to 200 psi.
Span : The algebraic difference between the upper and lower range
values. For example: Range 0 to 150 oF , span 150 oF.
Dead Band:
In process instrumentation the range through which an input signal
may be varied upon reversal of direction, without initiating an ob-
servable change in output signal. Dead band is usually expressed
in percent of span.

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Hysteresis
An instrument is said to exhibit hysteresis when there is a difference
in readings depending on whether the value of the measured quan-
tity is approached from above or below. Hysteresis results from the
inelastic quantity of an element or device. In other word, it may be
the result of mechanical friction, magnetic effects, elastic deforma-
tion, or thermal effects. Hysteresis is expressed in percent of span.
Dead band term is included in the hysteresis.

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 Dynamic characteristics:

The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are changes
rapidly with time, is called dynamic characteristics.
The various static characteristics are:
i) Speed of response
ii) Measuring lag
iii) Fidelity
iv) Dynamic error
Speed of response: It is defined as the rapidity with which a mea-
surement system responds to changes in the measured quantity.

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Measuring lag:
It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement sys-
tem to changes in the measured quantity. The measuring lags are
of two types:
a) Retardation type:
In this case the response of the measurement system begins im-
mediately after the change in measured quantity has occurred.
b) Time delay lag:
In this case the response of the measurement system begins after
a dead time after the application of the input.
Fidelity:
It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indi-
cates changes in the measurand quantity without dynamic error.

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 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

The types of errors are follows

i) Gross errors
ii) Systematic errors
iii) Random errors
1. Gross Errors: personal error

The gross errors mainly occur due to carelessness or lack of expe-

rience of a human begin
These errors also occur due to incorrect adjustments of instruments
These errors cannot be treated mathematically
These errors are also called personal errors.

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Ways to minimize gross errors: The complete elimination of g r o s
s errors is not possible but one c a n minimize them by the following
ways:
Taking great care while taking the reading, recording the reading &
calculating the result
Without depending on only one reading, at least three or more read-
ings must be taken * preferably by different persons.
2. Systematic errors:
A constant uniform deviation of the operation of an instrument is
known as a Systematic error
The Systematic errors are mainly due to the short comings of the
instrument & the characteristics of the material use d in the instru-
ment, such as defective or worn parts, ageing effects, environmen-
tal effects, etc.

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Types of Systematic errors:
There are three types of Systematic errors as:
i) Instrumental errors
ii) Environmental errors
iii) Observational errors
i .Instrumental errors:
These errors can be mainly due to the following three reasons:
a) Short comings of instruments:
These are because of the mechanical structure of the instruments.
For example friction in the bearings of various moving parts; irreg-
ular spring tensions, reductions in due to improper handling , hys-
teresis, gear backlash, stretching of spring, variations in air gap,
etc.

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Ways to minimize this error: These errors can be avoided by the
following methods:
Selecting a proper instrument and planning the proper procedure
for the measurement recognizing the effect of such errors a n d
applying t h e proper correction factors calibrating the instrument
carefully against a standard
b) Misuse of instruments: A good instrument if used in abnormal
way gives misleading results. Poor initial adjustment, Improper zero
setting, using leads of high resistance etc., are the examples of mis-
using a good instrument. Such things do not cause the permanent
damage to the instruments but definitely cause the serious errors.
C) Loading effects
Loading effects due to im proper way of using the instrument cause
the serious errors. The best ex ample of such loading effect error
is connecting a w ell calibrated volt meter across the two points of
high resistance circuit.
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The same volt meter connected in a low resistance circuit gives
accurate reading.
Ways to minimize this error:
Thus the errors due to the loading effect can be avoided by using
an instrument intelligently and correctly.
ii. Environmental errors:
These errors are due to the conditions external to the measuring in-
strument. The various factors resulting these environmental errors
are temperature changes, pressure changes, thermal emf, ageing
of equipment and frequency sensitivity of an instrument.
Ways to minimize this error: The various methods which can be
used to reduce these errors are:
i) Using the proper correction factors and using the information sup-
plied by the manufacturer of the instrument
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ii) Using the arrangement which will keep the surrounding condi-
tions Constant
iii) Reducing the effect of dust ,humidity on the components by her-
metically sealing the components in the instruments
iv) The effects of external f i e l d s can be minimized by using the
magnetic or electro static shields or screens
v) Using the equipment which is immune to such environmental
effects.
iii. Observational errors:
These are the errors introduced by the observer.
These are many sources of observational errors such as parallax
error while reading a meter, wrong scale selection,etc. Ways to
minimize this error
To eliminate such errors one should use the instruments with mir-
rors, knife edged pointers,etc.
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The systematic errors can be subdivided as static and dynamic er-
rors. The static errors are caused by the limitations of the measur-
ing device while the dynamic errors are caused by the instrument
not responding fast enough to follow the changes in the variable to
be measured.
3. Random errors:
Some errors still result, though the systematic and instrumental er-
rors are reduced or atleast accounted for. The causes of such er-
rors are unknown and hence the errors are called random errors.
Ways to minimize this error
The only way to reduce these errors i s by increasing t h e number
of observations and using the statistical methods to obtain the best
approximation of the reading.

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 Dynamic error:

It is the difference between the true value of the quantity changing

with time & the value indicated by the measurement system if no
static error is assumed. It is also called measurement error.

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 Transducer
For most instrumentation systems, the input quantity will be a non-
electrical quantity. The non-electrical quantity is converted into an
electrical form for using electrical methods and techniques for mea-
surement, manipulation and control. The device which when actu-
ated, transforms energy from one form to another is called a trans-
ducer.
PARTS OF TRANSDUCER
1. Sensing or Detection Element: A detector or a sensing ele-
ment is that part of a transducer which responds to a physical phe-
nomenon or a change in physical phenomenon. The response of
sensing element must be closely related to physical phenomenon.
2. Transduction Element: A transduction element is one which
transforms the output of a sensing element to an electrical output.
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 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
1. On the basis of transduction form used
2. As primary and secondary transducers
3. As passive and active transducers
4. As analog and digital transducers
5. As transducers and inverse transducers
On the basis of transduction form used
I. Resistive transducer
II. Inductive transducer
III. Capacitive transducer: depending upon how they convert the
input quantity into resistance, inductance or capacitance respec-
tively.They can be categorized as piezoelectric, thermoelectric, mag-
netorestrictive, electrokinetic and optical.
IV. Voltage and current generating transducer
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Primary and Secondary Transducers:
Primary Transducer is the detecting or sensing element which re-
sponds to the change in physical phenomena. Whereas the Sec-
ondary Transducer converts the output of primary transducer (out-
put in the form of mechanical movement) into electrical output.

bourdon tube which senses the pressure and converts it into dis-
placement of its free end and hence acts as primary transducer.
The core of LVDT (linear variable differential transformer) is moved
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due to this displacement. Hence the LVDT produces output voltage
proportional to that displacement of the free end of bourdon tube.
Bourdon tube, which acts as primary transducer and LVDT acts as
secondary transducer.
Measurement of a compressive force with the help of load cell and
strain gauge

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When for is applied on the load cell, a strain is produced in it. The
force is first detected by the column and is converted into the strain
which is basically a mechanical displacement. The higher the ap-
plied force, the more will be strain generated in the column. This
strain changes the resistance of strain gauge. Thus, we have output
in the form of change in resistance which is an electrical quantity.
The entire process of measurement of force with the help of load
cell and strain gauge can be divided into two parts. First, the ap-
plied force generates a mechanical movement, called strain (Pri-
mary Transducer). Next, the strain gauge responds to the mechan-
ical movement and process corresponding change in resistance
value and so electrical output (Secondary Transducers). In most
of the measurement systems, there is a combination of wherein
a Mechanical device acts as primary transducer and the electrical
device acts as secondary transducer with mechanical displacement
serving as the intermediate signal.
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Passive and Active Transducers:
Passive Transducer:
A Transducer which requires external power supply to function is
called passive transducer. This external power supply is called aux-
iliary power supply and required for the functioning of transduction
element. This type of transducer is also called Externally Powered
Transducer.

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POT is an example of passive transducer. It is used to convert a
linear displacement into electrical signal. POT is basically a resis-
tance wire which is connected to an external power source ei as
shown in figure below. The linear displacement is xi and the output
voltage is eo. Let the length of resistance wire be L and total resis-
tance be Rt. When linear displacement is xi, the resistance of wire
across the eo is (Rt/L)xi and hence, the output voltage eo will be
given by voltage division rule as below.
eo = [ei(Rt/L)xi] / Rt
=⇒ = ei(xi / L)
=⇒ xi = (eo/ ei) L
Linear displacement is directly proportional to the output voltage for
a given input voltage and resistance length. It can also be observed
that a POT can not work if external power supply is not connected.

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Active Transducer:
Active Transducers are those which does not require external power
supply to work. This doesnt mean that these types of transducers
dont require power at all. In fact, the power required for functioning
is derived from the physical change itself. Example of active trans-
ducer is piezoelectric crystal. When external force is applied on a
Piezoelectric crystal, a emf is developed across its face on which
force is applied. This property is utilized to make an active trans-
ducer. This transducer is called Accelerometer used to measure
the acceleration.
In an accelerometer, piezoelectric crystal is sandwiched in between
the two metallic electrodes and the arrangement is fastened with
the floor whose acceleration is to be measured. A fixed mass in
placed on the top of the sandwich.

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When the floor travels with acceleration, a force proportional to the
acceleration is exerted on the sandwich and hence a emf is gener-
ated across the electrodes. This emf is directly proportional to the
acceleration and hence, indicates the acceleration of the moving
body.

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Analog and Digital Transducers:
Analog Transducers:
Analog Transducers are those whose output is continuous in time
domain. This essentially means that the electrical output signal
will be continuous function of time. Example of analog transducers
are RTD, Thermocouple, LVDT, RVDT, thermistor etc. In RTD and
Thermocouple, the output signal is in the form of voltage which is
always available.
Digital Transducers: Transducers which convert the input quantity
into an electrical output signal which is in the form of pulse is called
Digital Transducers. Note that, the output is not continuous rather it
is in the form of pulse which means that it is discrete. Example of
digital transducer is a Shaft Encoder, Limit Switch, Digital Tachome-
ter etc.

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Shaft Encoder is used to measure the angular position & veloc-
ity and its output is digital in nature. It is extensively used in the
robotics, rotating machinery control like Crane.
Transducers and Inverse Transducers:
Transducers:
Devices which convert a non-electrical quantity into an electrical
quantity is popularly known as Transducers.
Inverse Transducers:
Devices which convert an electrical quantity into non-electrical quan-
tity is called Inverse Transducer. The name itself implies that the
function of Inverse Transducer is inverse of the Transducer.
In this type of transducers, an electrical signal is intentionally con-
verted into some sort of physical change. Example. piezoelectric
crystal. When voltage across the surface of a piezoelectric crystal
is applied, it changes its dimension.
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Thus, electrical quantity is changed into physical quantity. Another
example is a coil carrying current and kept in magnetic field. Due to
interaction of current of coil with the magnetic field, it starts to rotate
or translate. Inverse Transducers are mainly used in control system
to control various process parameters viz. pressure, temperature,
displacement etc.
Basic requirements for the proper functioning of transducers;
Ruggedness: It should be capable of withstanding over load and
some safety should be provided for overload protection.
Linearity: Its input-output characteristics should be linear and it
should produce these characteristics in symmetrical way.
Repeatability: It should reproduce same output signal when the
same input signal is applied under fixed environmental conditions.
For example pressure, temperature, humidity etc.

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Residual Deformation: There should be no deformation on re-
moval of input signal after long period of application.
No Hysteresis: It should not give any hysteresis during measure-
ment while input signal is varied from its low value to high value and
vice versa.
High Output Signal Quality: The quality of the output signal should
be good. That is the ratio of signal to the noise is high and the am-
plitude of the output signal should be enough.
High Reliability and Stability: It should give minimum error in
measurement for temperature variations, vibrations and other vari-
ous changes in surroundings.
Good Dynamic Response: Its output should be faithful to input
when taken as a function of time. The effect is analysed as the
frequency response.

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