DAV INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY,

JALANDHAR

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

PRACTICAL FILE
Computer Networks Lab
BTCS 507-18

Submitted to:- Submitted By:-

Mr. Vishwa Mitter Name: Krishna Joshi
Dept. of CSE BTech CSE-A(5th Sem)
Class Roll no. 152/22
Uni. Roll no. 2202207
 Computer Networks 2202207

TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.NO LIST OF EXPERIMENTS PAGE NO REMARKS

1. To study the different types of Network cables and 3-14
network topologies.

2. Practically implement and test the cross-wired cable 15-18

and straight through cable using clamping tool and
network lab cable tester.

3. To familiarize with various network devices. 19-23

4. Familiarization with packet tracer simulation tool/any 24-25
other related tool.

5. Study and implementation of IP Addressing Schemes. 26-31

6. Creation of Simple networking topologies using hubs 32-33
and switches.

7. Simulation of web traffic in Packet Tracer. 34

8. Study and implementation of various router configu- 35-36
-ration commands.

9. Creation of networks using routers. 37-39

10. Configuration networks using the concept of
subnetting.
11. Practical implementation of basic network command 40-47

and network configuration commands like ping,

ipconfig, netstat, tracer etc. for troubleshooting

network related problems.

12. Configuration of networks using static and default 48-49
routers.

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Task1: To study the different types of Network cables and network topologies

Cables
Networking cables are networking hardware used to connect one network device to other network
devices or to connect two or more computers to share printers, scanners etc. Different types of
network cables, such as coaxial cable, optical fiber cable, and twisted pair cables, are used
depending on the network's physical layer, topology, and size. The devices can be separated by a
few meters or nearly unlimited distances. There are several technologies used for network
connections. Patch cables are used for short distances in offices and wiring closets. Electrical
connections using twisted pair or coaxial cable are used within a building. Optical fiber cable is
used for long distances or for applications requiring high bandwidth or electrical isolation. Many
installations use structured cabling practices to improve reliability and maintainability. In some
home and industrial applications power lines are used as network cabling.

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable, is a type of cable that has an inner conductor surrounded by a tubular insulating layer,
surrounded by a tubular conducting shield. Many coaxial cables also have an insulating outer sheath
or jacket. The term coaxial comes from the inner conductor and the outer shield sharing a geometric
axis. Coaxial cable was invented by English engineer and mathematician Oliver Heaviside, who
patented the design in 1880.Coaxial cable differs from other shielded cable used for carrying lower-
frequency signals, in that the dimensions of the cable are controlled to give a precise, constant
conductor spacing, which is needed for it to function efficiently as a transmission line.

Fig1.1:Internal View of Coaxial Cable

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Coaxial cable conducts electrical signal using an inner conductor (usually a solid copper, stranded
copper or copper plated steel wire) surrounded by an insulating layer and all enclosed by a shield,
typically one to four layers of woven metallic braid and metallic tape. The cable is protected by an outer
insulating jacket. Normally, the shield is kept at ground potential and a signal carrying voltage is applied
to the center conductor.

Fig1.2 coaxial cable

The advantage of coaxial design is that electric and magnetic fields are restricted to the dielectric with
little leakage outside the shield. Conversely, electric and magnetic fields outside the cable are largely
kept from interfering with signals inside the cable. Larger diameter cables and cables with multiple
shields have less leakage. This property makes coaxial cable a good choice for carrying weak signals
that cannot tolerate interference from the environment or for stronger electrical signals that must not be
allowed to radiate or couple into adjacent structures or circuits. Common applications of coaxial cable
include video and CATV distribution, RF and microwave transmission, and computer and
instrumentation data connections.
Twisted Pair Cable
Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two conductors of a single circuit are twisted together
for the purposes of canceling out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from external sources; for
instance, electromagnetic radiation from unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables, and crosstalk between
neighboring pairs. It was invented by Alexander Graham Bell.
There are two twisted pair type:
Shielded Twisted Pair Cable (STP): It has a fine wire mesh surrounding the wires to protect the
transmission. This shielding can be applied to individual pairs or quads, or to the collection of pairs.
Individual pairs are foiled, while overall cable may use braided screen, foil, or braiding with foil.
Because the shielding is made of metal, it may also serve as a ground. Usually, a shielded twisted pair
cable has a special grounding wire added called a drain wire which is electrically connected to the

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shield or screen.
The drain wire simplifies connection to ground at the connectors. Shielded cable is used in older
telephone networks, as well as network and data communications to reduce outside interference.

Fig1.3: Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

 Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable (UTP): These are found in many Ethernet networks and
telephone systems. For indoor telephone applications, UTP is often grouped into sets of 25 pairs
according to a standard 25-pair color code originally developed by AT&T Corporation. A typical
subset of these colors (white/blue, blue/white, white/orange, orange/white) shows up in most UTP
cables. For urban outdoor telephone cables containing hundreds or thousands of pairs, the cable is
divided into small but identical bundles.

Each bundle consists of twisted pairs that have different twist rates. The bundles are in turn twisted
together to make up the cable. Pairs having the same twist rate within the cable can still experience
some degree of crosstalk. Wire pairs are selected carefully to minimize crosstalk within a large
cable.UTP cable is also the most common cable used in computer networking. Modern Ethernet, the
most common data networking standard, can use UTP cables. Twisted pair cabling is often used in data
networks for short and medium length connections because of its relatively lower costs compared to
optical fiber and coaxial cable.

Fig 1.4: UTP cable

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Optical Fiber

An optical fiber cable is a cable containing one or more optical fibers that are used to carry light. The
optical fiber elements are typically individually coated with plastic layers and contained in a protective
tube suitable for the environment where the cable will be deployed. Different types of cable are used for
different applications, for example long distance telecommunication, or providing a high-speed data
connection between different parts of a building.

Fig1.5:OpticalFiberCable

Optical fiber consists of a core and a cladding layer, selected for total internal reflection due to the
difference in the refractive index between the two. In practical fibers, the cladding is usually coated
with a layer of a crylate polymer or polyimide. This coating protects the fiber from damage but does
not contribute to its optical waveguide properties. Individual coated fibers (or fibers formed into
ribbons or bundles) then have a tough resin buffer layer and/or core tube(s) extruded around them to
form the cable core. Several layers of protective sheathing, depending on the application, are added to
form the cable. Rigid fiber assemblies sometimes put light-absorbing ("dark") glass between the fibers,
to prevent light that leaks out of one fiber from entering another. This reduces cross-talk between the
fibers, or reduces flare in fiber bundle imaging applications.

Fig1.6: Internal View of Optical Fiber Cable

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Optical fibers are very strong, but the strength is drastically reduced by unavoidable microscopic
surface flaws inherent in the manufacturing process. The initial fiber strength, as well as its change
with time, must be considered relative to the stress imposed on the fiber during handling, cabling, and
installation for a given set of environmental conditions. There are three basic scenarios that can lead to
strength degradation and failure by inducing flaw growth: dynamic fatigue, static fatigues, and zero-
stress aging.

CONNECTORS

In information science, connectors, normally called "input-output connectors" (or I/O for short), are
interfaces for linking devices by using cables. They generally have a male end with pins protruding
from it. This plug is meant to be inserted into a female part (also called a socket), which includes holes
for accommodating the pins. However, there are "hermaphroditic" plugs which can act as either male
or female plugs, and can be inserted into either one.

BNC Connector

The BNC (Bayonet Neill–Counsel man) connector used with coaxial cables such as the RG-58 A/U
cable used with the 10Base-2 Ethernet system. The basic BNC connector is a male type mounted at
each end of a cable. This connector has a center pin connected to the center cable conductor and a
metal tube connected to the outer cable shield. A rotating ring outside the tube locks the cable to any
female connector.
It is a miniature quick connect/disconnect radio frequency connector used for coaxial cable. It features
two bay one on the female connect or; mating is fully achieved with a quarter turn of the coupling
nut. BNC connectors are used with miniature-to-subminiature coaxial cable in radio, television, and
other radio-frequency electronic equipment, test instruments, and video signals. BNC connectors can
also be used to connect some monitors, which increases the accuracy of the signals sent from the video

Fig1.7: BNC Connector

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RJ Connector

A family of push-and-click connectors for twisted-pair wiring in telephone and network wiring. RJ
stands for Registered Jack. RJ types define both a jack or receptacle(female) and a plug(male) type of
connector. The most common types of RJ connectors are as follows:

 RJ-11Connector:A4-wire or 6-wire telephone-type connect or that connects telephones to wall

plates. RJ-11 supports up to six wires, but usually only four are used with the two-pair twisted-
pair cabling commonly found in telephone cabling.

Fig1.8: RJ11 Connector

 RJ-45 Connector: An 8-wire telephone-type connector used with twisted-pair cabling for
connecting computers, wall plates, patch panels, and other networking components. RJ-45 is the
standard type of connect or for both unshielded twisted-pair(UTP) and shielded twisted-pair (STP)
cabling in star-topology Ethernet networks such as 10 Base T and 100 Base T4. RJ-45 is defined in
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standard 8877.
 RJ-48 Connector: An 8-wire telephone-type connector used with twisted-pair cabling for
connectingT1 and 56-KB digital data service (DDS) lines. RJ-48 uses the same jack as RJ-45 but
uses a different pinning, with one pair of wires to transmit signals, one pair to receive signals, one
pair for drain, and one unused pair (reserved for future use). RJ-48 connectors come in three
varieties: RJ-48C and RJ-48Xfor connecting T1 lines, andRJ-48S for connecting 56-KB DDS
lines.

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Fig1.9: RJ45/48 Connector

ST Connector

ST stands for Straight Tip - a quick release bayonet style Connector developed by AT&T. ST
Connectors are among the most commonly used Fiber optic connectors in networking applications.
They are cylindrical with twist lock coupling, 2.5mm keyed ferrule. ST Connectors are used both short
distance applications and long line systems. The ST connector has a bayonet mount and a long
cylindrical Ferrule to hold the fiber. Because they are spring-loaded, you have to make sure they are
seated properly. They are easily inserted and removed due to their design. If you experience high Light
loss, try reconnecting.ST connectors come in two versions: ST and ST-II. These are keyed and spring-
loaded. They are push-in and twist types. They are rated for 500 mating cycles. The typical Insertion
Loss for matched ST connectors is 0.25 db. View all Fiber Optic Connectors.

Fig1.10: ST Connector

SC Connector

SC stands for Subscriber Connector- a general purpose push/pull style Connector developed by NTT.
SC has an advantage in keyed duplexibility to support send/receive channels. SC Connectors are
frequently used for newer Network applications. The SC is a snap-in connector that is widely used in
single mode systems for its performance. The SC connector is also available in a Duplex configuration.
They offer low cost, simplicity, and durability. SC connectors provide for accurate alignment via their
ceramicfer rules.

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Fig1.11: SC Connector

Network Topologies:
a) Mesh Topology:
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel.

Figure1: Every device is connected with another via dedicated channels. These channels are known as
links.
 Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, the total
number of ports that are required by each device is N-1. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices
connected to each other, hence the total number of ports required by each device is 4. Total
number of ports required=N*(N-1).
 Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, then the total
number of dedicated links required to connect them is NC2 i.e., N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1, there are 5
 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of links required is 5*4/2=10.

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Advantages of this topology:

 It is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the devices
through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.
Problems with this topology:
 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for a smaller number of
devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.

b) Star Topology:
In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the
central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in
nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be
intelligent known as an active hub. Active hub shave repeaters in them.

Figure2: A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of connection i.e., hub.
Advantages of this topology:
 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables required to
 Connect them is N. So, it is easy to setup.

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 Each device requires only 1 port i.e., to connect to the hub, there fore the total number of ports
required is N.
Problems with this topology:

 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will crash
down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. ,hub.

c) Bus Topology:
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to a
single cable. It transmits the data from one end to another in a single direction. No bi-directional
feature is in bus topology. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the
backbone fails the topology crashes.

Figure 3: A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to the channel via drop
lines.
Advantages of this topology:
 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables required to
connect them is 1, which is known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
 The cost of the cable is less as compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small
networks.
Problems with this topology:
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various
protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
 Security is very low.

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d) Ring Topology:
In this topology, it for connecting devices with its exactly two neighboring devices.

A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the
data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss
repeaters are used in the network.

The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections

between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.

Figure 4:A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a ring.
The following operations take place in ring topology are:
1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility to perform the
operations.
2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done, the token is
to be released for other stations to use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the token just after
transmitting the data and Delay token release releases the token after the acknowledgment is
received from the receiver.
Advantages of this topology:
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
Problems with this topology:

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 Trouble shooting is difficult in this topology.

 The addition of stations in between or removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.
 Less secure.

e) Tree Topology:
This topology is the variation of Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of data.

Figure 5: In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains the
repeater.

In this data flow from top to bottom i.e., from the central hub to secondary and then to the
devices or from bottom to top i.e., devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub. It is
a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the back bone fails the topology
crashes.

Advantages of this topology:

a) It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the distance that is
travelled by the signal to come to the devices.
b) It allows the network to get isolate and also prioritize from different computers.
Problems with this topology:
a) If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
b) The cost is high because of cabling.

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Task 2: Practically implement and test the cross-wired cable and straight through
cable using clamping tool and network lab cable tester.

Straight Through & Cross Over Cable

Requirement:
 Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) patch cable

 Modular connector (8P8Cplug, akaRJ45)

 Crimping tool

 Cable tester (optional, but recommended)

There are four pairs of wires in an Ethernet cable, and an Ethernet connector has eight pin slots. Each
pin is identified by a number, starting from left to right, with the clip facing away from you. The two
standards for wiring Ethernet cables are T568A and T568B. T568B is the most common and is what
we'll be using for our straight Ethernet cable. The tables below show the proper orientation of the
colored wires to the pins.

Fig2.1: T568A And T568B Standards *

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 Steps to make a straight through cable areas follows:

Fig 2.2: Striping The Cable *

1. Strip the cable jacket about 1.5 inch down from the end.
2. Spread the four pairs of twisted wire apart. For Cat 5e, you can use the pull string to strip the
jacket farther down if you need to, then cut the pull string. Cat 6 cables have a spine that will
also need to be cut.
3. Untwist the wire pairs and neatly align them in the fig2.4 orientation. Be sure not to untwist the
many farther down the cable than where the jacket begins; we want to leave as much of the cable
twisted as possible

Fig 2.3: Untwisting the Cable *

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4. Cut the wires as straight as possible, about 0.5 inch above the end of the jacket.

5. Carefully insert the wires all the way into the modular connector, making sure that each wire
passes through the appropriate guides inside the connector.
6. Push the connector inside the crimping tool and squeeze the crimper all the way down.

Fig 2.4: Crimping the Wire *[*http://i.i.cbsi.com/cnwk.1d/i/tim/2011/08/03/Crimp.jpg]

1. Repeat steps 1-6 for the other end of the cable.

2. To make sure you've successfully terminated each end of the cable, use a cable tester to test each
pin.
3. When you're all done, the connectors should look like this:

Fig 2.5: Complete LAN Wire *[*http://i.i.cbsi.com/cnwk.1d/i/tim/2011/08/03/Crimped-connector.jpg]

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Color Coding of Ethernet Cables

There are two basic ethernet cable pin outs. A straight through ethernet cable, which
is used to connect to a hub or switch, and a crossover ethernet cable used to operate
in a peer- to- peer fashion without a hub/ switch. Generally, all fixed wiring should be
run as straight through. Some ethernet interfaces can cross and un- cross a cable
automat ically as needed, a handy feature.

Fig2.6: Color Coding of Ethernet Cables

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Task 3: To familiarize with various network devices.

HUB

H u b s e r ve s as a c e nt r a l d e vic e t hr o ugh w h ic h d a t a bo u nd fo r wo r k s t at io n
t r a ve l . I t co nt a ins mu l t ip le p o r t s . Whe n p a c k e t s a r r ive a t o ne po r t , i t is
c o p ie d , u nmo d i f i e d t o a l l t he po r t s o f t he hu b fo r t r a ns mis s io n . It u s e s s t a r
t o po lo g y ne t wo r k .

A d v ant a g e s
a) Le s s e xp e ns ive ne t wo rk co nne c t ing d e vic e .
b) C a n e xt e nd a net wo r k ’ s t o t a l d is t a nc e .
c) Do no t s er io u s l y a f fe c t ne t wo rk ’ s p er fo r ma nc e

Drawbacks-

It broadcasts to all the ports; it runs half duplex. If 10 ports in a hub, it will share bandwidth of 100
Mbps. So, each port shares 10Mbps.

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Applications
a) Hubs are used to create small Home Networks.

b) Hubs are used for monitoring the networks.

c) Hubs are used in Organizations and Computer Labs for connectivity.

d) It makes one device or peripheral available through the whole network.

Fig 3.1:- Hub

 Types of Hubs- On the basis of its working methods, the Hubs can be divided into three types,
given as:

I. Active Hub: As its name suggests, Active Hub is a hub which can amplify or regenerate the
information signal. This type of bus has an advantage as it also amplifies the incoming signal as
well as forwards it to multiple devices. This Bus is also known as Multiport Repeater. It can
upgrade the properties if in coming signal before sending them to destination.
II. Passive Hub: Passive Hub works like a simple Bridge. It is used for just creating a connection
between various devices. It does not have the ability to amplify or regenerate any incoming
signal. It receives signal and then forward it to multiple devices.
III. Intelligent Hub: This is the third and last type of Bus. It can perform tasks of both Active and
Passive buses. Also, it can perform some other tasks like Bridging and routing. It increases the
speed and effectiveness of total network thus makes the performance.

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SWITCHES

A switch is used to network multiple computers together. Switches made for the consumer market are
typically small, flat boxes with 4 to 8 Ethernet ports. These ports can connect to computers, cable or
DSL modems, and other switches. High-end switches can have more than 50 ports and often are rack
mounted.

Switches are more advanced than hubs, and less capable than routers. Unlike hubs, switches can limit
the traffic to and from each port so that each device connected to the switch has a sufficient amount of
bandwidth. For this reason, you can think of a switch as a "smart hub." However, switches don't
provide the firewall and logging capabilities that routers do. Routers can often be configured by
software (typically via a Web interface), while switches only work the way the hardware was designed.
Switch can perform error checking before forwarding data that makes it very efficient as it does not
forward packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively to correct port only.

The term "switch" can also be used to refer to a small lever or button on computer hardware. And while
it has nothing to do with computers, "riding switch" means riding backwards in skateboarding and
snowboarding.

Fig 3.2:- Switch

ROUTERS

A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses. Router is mainly
a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs together and have a dynamically
updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data packets. Router divide
broad cast domains of hosts connected through it.

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A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks. Routers
perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet. A data packet is typically forwarded from one
router to another router through the networks that constitute an inter network until it reaches its
destination node.

 Advantages
a) Router limits the collision domain.
b) Router can function on LAN and WAN.
c) Router can connect different media & architectures.
d) Router can determine best path/route for data to reach the destination.

 Disadvantages
a) Router is more expensive than Hub, Bridge& Switch.
b) Router only works with routable protocol.
c) Routing updates consume bandwidth.
d) Increase latency due to greater degree of packet filtering.

Fig 3.3:- Router

BRIDGE

Abridge is a computer networking device that builds the connection with the other bridge networks
which use the same protocol. It works at the Data Link layer of the OSI Model and connects the
different networks together and develops communication between them. It connects two local-area

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networks; two physical LANs into larger logical LAN or two segments of the same LAN that use the
same protocol.

Fig 3.4:- Bridge

Apart from building up larger networks, bridges are also used to segment larger networks into smaller
portions. The bridge does so by placing itself between the two portions of two physical networks and
controlling the flow of the data between them. Bridges nominate to forward the data after inspecting into
the MAC address of the devices connected to every segment. The forwarding of the data is dependent on
the acknowledgement of the fact that the destination address resides on some other interface. It has the
capacity to block the incoming flow of data as well. Today Learning bridges have been introduced that
build a list of the MAC addresses on the interface by observing the traffic on the network.

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Task 4:- Familiarization with packet tracer simulation tool/any other related tool.
Cisco Packet Tracer is an essential tool in simulating the network system. It was developed by Dennis
Frezo and histeamat Cisco System. It is a powerful tool that displays the various protocols in
Networking, a dynamic way in showing the configuration and a systematic method to experience
networking even without the real equipment used in Networking. Packet Tracer is just a supplement not
replacement for real devices used in Networking System. It will just show the dynamic way in either
Real-Time or Stimulation Packet. Tracer is a powerful network simulator that can be utilized in training
for CCNA.

 Learn the basic operations of Packet Tracer:-File commands, visualization and configuration of
networking devices.
 Simulate the interactions of data traveling through the network.
 Learn to visualize the network in logical and physical modes.
 Reinforce your understanding with extensive hands-on networking and activities.

Fig4.1 Opening window of Packet Tracer

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There are different modules and panels available in the packet tracer. Some important modules, which
are important to understand for the working in Packet Tracer, are as given below:-

 Tool bar: - We can pick our network devices, end devices or cables etc. from the toolbar as
required by our network stimulation. Some of the devices are as router, switches, end devices etc.
 With the Toolbar we have another panel to select required type of device with certain specifications
from all the types available. For example, Selecting ‘1941’ router from Routers in toolbar.
 Editing Tools: - These are the tools with some important purpose used in construction of different
network topologies e.g., ‘delete’ to erase the selected part of network or ‘select’ to select a specific
part of the network
 Work Space: - It is the empty space available between where all the network topologies are
constructed.
 Menu Bar:- It contains the basic features like New, Save, Save As, Undo etc.
 Real-Time/Simulation: - By this feature of packet tracer we can choose if we want to see network
topology working in real-time or through simulation. Simulation facilitates the understanding of
how the topology is working.

Fig 4.2:- Modules of CISCO Packet Tracer

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Task 5:- Study and implementation of IP Addressing Schemes.

IPV6 Address:- An Internet Protocol Version 6 address is a numerical label that is used to identify a
network interface of a computer or other network node participating in an IPv6 network. An IP address
serves the purpose of uniquely identifying an individual network interface of a host, locating it on the
network, and thus permitting the routing of IP packets between hosts IPv6 is an Internet Protocol (IP)
for packet-switched internetworking that specifies the format of packets(also called datagram) and the
addressing scheme across multiple IP networks. In comparing the two protocols IPv6 expands upon the
addressing and routing capabilities ofIPv4in a number of ways including:
 In IPv6 the IP address size is increased from 32 bits to 128 bits.
 IPv6 supports a greater number of addressable nodes.
 IPv6 provides more levels of addressing hierarchy.
 IPv6 offers simpler auto-configuration of addresses.
 Ipv6 also supports simplified header format.

TYPES OF IPv6 ADDRESS

IPv6 addresses are classified by the primary addressing and routing methodologies common in
networking: uni-cast addressing, any cast addressing, and multi cast addressing.

 UNICAST ADDRESS:- A unicast address identifies a single network interface. The Internet
Protocol delivers packets sent to a uni-cast address to that specific interface.
 ANY CAST ADDRESS: - An any cast address is assigned to a group of interfaces, usually
belonging to different nodes. A packet sent to an any cast address is delivered to just one of the
member interfaces, typically the nearest host, according to the routing protocol’s definition of
distance. Anycast addresses cannot be identified easily, they have the same format as unicast
addresses, and differ only by their presence in the network at multiple points. Almost any unicast
address can be employed as an any cast address.
 MULTICAST ADDRESS:- A multicast address is also used by multiple hosts, which acquire the
multicast address destination by participating in the multicast distribution protocol among the
network routers. A packet that is sent to a multicast address is delivered to all interfaces that have
joined the corresponding multicast group. IPv6 does not implement broadcast addressing.
Broadcast's traditional role is subsumed by multicast addressing to the all-nodes link-local
multicast group.

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WORKING MODES OF ROUTER:- There are 5 mail modes of router: User Execution Mode,
Privilege Mode, ROM Monitor Mode, Sub interface Configuration Mode, Interface Configuration
Mode, Global Configuration Mode.
Link local:
1. A link local address is an ipv6 unicast address that can be automatically/manually configured on
any interface using the prefix “FE80:”
2. These addresses mostly used for addressing on a single link for purposes such as automatic address
configuration and neighbor discovery.
3. All ipv6 enabled interfaces have a link local unicast address.
 No shut down: This command enables an interface and brings it up. It is mostly used for new
interfaces or troubleshooting purposes.
 Show IP route: It is used to show the list of the networks that router can reach, their metric.
 Show IP interface: It is used to list all the interface brief of all IP’s connected.

Steps:
 Step1: Scenario Created

Figure: 5.1

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 Step2: To configure IPV6 address on PC0.

Figure: 5.2

 Step 3: To configure IPV6 address on PC1.

Figure: 5.3
 Step 4: To configure ipv6 routing in the network. Go to cmd inter face of router 0 and type
following commands:
 Enable
 Configure terminal
 Ipv6 unicast-routing
 Interface fast ethernet0/0
 Ipv6 enable
 Ipv6 address FE80::202:4AFF:FE9D:5630LINK-LOCAL
 Ipv6 address 2000:1:1:1:1:1:1:1111/112
 No shut down

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 Press “CTRL” to exit from current working mode of router

 Configure terminal
 Ipv6 unicast-routing
 Interface fast Ethernet 0/1
 Ipv6 enable
 Ipv6 address FE80::202:4AFF:FE9D:5630LINK-LOCAL
 Ipv6 address 4000:1:1:1:1:1:1:1112/112
 No shut down.
 Press “CTRL” to exit from current working mode of router.

Figure: 5.4

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Figure:5.5

Figure:5.6

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 Step 5: After completely executing these commands the IPV6 address scheme plan will be enabled
and all connections will be established.

Figure:5.7

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Task 6: Creation of Simple networking topologies using hubs and switches.

Steps:

 Select ‘Switches’ from Toolbox

 Select ‘2960-24TT’ switch from the panel and place it on the workspace

 Go to ‘End devices’ on Tool box and select any four end devices such as computer or laptop.

 Go to ‘Cables’ and select Copper-straight through cable and attach the switch with all the devices
through fast Ethernet.

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Fig 6.1 Network Topology with layer 2 devices i.e., switch

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Task 7:- Simulation of web traffic in Packet Tracer.

Steps:
 Select ‘Switches’ from Toolbox

 Select ‘2960-24TT’switchfromthepanelandplaceitontheworkspace

 Go to ‘End devices’ on Tool box and select any four end devices such as computer or laptop.

 Go to ‘Cables’ and select Copper-straight through cable and attach the switch with all the
devices through fast Ethernet.
 Go to ‘End devices’ on Toolbox and select a server to store a web page and give an IP address
here (192.168.0.250).
 Go to ‘Switches’ on Tool box and create a network with these devices.

 No open the web browser on any of the computer devices and enter the IP address in the search
engine.
 It will display the web data that was transferred.

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Task 8:- Study and implementation of various router configuration commands.

Steps;

 Select ‘Router’ from the tool bar and select any router.
 Click on the router and then from the window select the CLI option and focus the terminal.
 In the terminal write ‘enable’ and then press enter. This will enable the router now we can run
commands on the terminal.
 Perform some basic commands like giving the hostname, password, setting up an interface, give Ip
address and sub net mask etc.
 For this first type ‘configure terminal’ and press enter.
 To give host name type ‘hostname[hostname]’here (Main Router)
 To give a password enter ‘enable secret [password]’e.g.,123
 To set up an interface use ‘interfacef0/0’
 To then set an IP address to this interface use ‘Ip address [ip_address] [subnet_mask]’
e.g.,192.168.0.1255.255.255.0.
 To exit the terminal use ‘exit’ to go back.

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Task 9: Creation Of Networks Using Routers.

Steps:

 Toolbox-> Routers -> AnyrequiredRoutere.g.,4321

 Toolbox-> End devices ->6 PCs
 Toolbox-> Switches -> 2switches
 Toolbox-> cables ->Copper straight through cable to connect PCs with router
 Click on Router-0 and open ‘Config’
 Go to Interface->
 Gigbite ethernet0/0/0: IP address 192.168.0.10 and ‘on’ the Port Status
 Gigbite ethernet0/0/1: IP address 192.168.1.10 and ‘on’ the Port Status
 Go to PC1, PC2, PC3 and give them IP addresses starting from 192.168.0.1 and default gateway as
192.168.0. Go to PC4, PC5, PC6 and give them IP addresses starting from 192.168.1.1 and default
gateway as 192.168.1.10.
 Send a packet and test.

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Task 11: Practical implementation of basic network commands and network
configuration commands like ping, ip config, netsat, traceart etc. for troubleshooting
network related programs.

Tracert
This command is used to diagnose path-related problems. On an IP network, routers exchange IP
packets between the source and the destination. They take IP packets from the source host and forward
them in a sequence until they reach the destination host. The sequence of routers between the source and
destination is known as the path. A path consists of all routers in a sequence that IP packets sent from
the source host traverse to reach the destination host.

The tracert command prints the path. If all routers on the path are functional, this command prints the
full path. If a router is down on the path, this command prints the path up to the last operational router

The tracert command uses the following syntax.

Tracert Destination Name or IP address

The following command traces the path to the host namedwww.google.co.in.

Tracert www.google.co.in

The following image shows the output of this command.

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The following table lists some important options of the tracert command.
Optio Description
n
-d Do not resolve the IP addresses of intermediate routers to their names.
-h Specifies the maximum number of hops(routers)to search on the path. The default is 30 hops.
-w Specifies the amount of time in milliseconds to wait for a reply message from the router. If not

Ping
The ping command is used to test connectivity between two hosts. It sends ICMP echo request
messages to the destination. The destination host replies with ICMP replies messages. If the ping
command gets a reply from the destination host, it displays the reply along with round-trip times.

The ping command uses the following syntax.

ping destination host IP or name

ThefollowingcommandtestsconnectivitybetweenthehostcomputerandGoogle'sserver.

ping google.com
The following image shows the output of this

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If you specify the hostname as an argument, the ping command uses the configured DNS client service
to automatically translate the host name into the IP address.

Arp
To send IP packets, a computer needs two addresses. These addresses are the MAC address and the IP
address. A MAC address is the physical or hardware address of the NIC. An IP address is the logical or
software address of NIC. If a computer knows the IP address of the destination computer but it does not
know the MAC address of the destination computer, it uses the ARP protocol to know the MAC
address of the destination computer.

The ARP protocol broadcasts a given IP address over a local network. The corresponding host
responds to the broadcast with its MAC address. To avoid repetition, ARP stores the answer in a table
known as ARP table. ARP maintains a separate ARP table for each NIC.
To view the ARP table, you can use the following command.

Arp

By default, this command displays the ARP table of the active NIC. If multiple NICs are installed on
the computer, you can use the –a option with this command. If the -a option is used, the ARP command
displays all ARP tables.
The following image shows the output of the arp command when used with the-a option.

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To display the ARP cache entry for a specific IP address, specify the IP address with the -N option. For
example, the following command displays the ARP cache table for the interface that is assigned the IP
address 192.168.42.171.

Arp-a -N192.168.42.171
The following image shows the output of the above command.

Net stat
This command displays active connections, ports on which the computer is listening, Ethernet
statistics, the IP routing table, and IP statistics.
The output of this command is organized in rows and columns. Each row represents a new connection
or an entry in the output. It contains four columns. These columns provide the following information
about the row.
Proto:-This column displays the name of the protocol (TCP or UDP).

Local Address: - This column displays the IP address of the local computer and the port number being
used. If the port is not yet established, the port number is shown as an asterisk (*).
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ForeignAddress:-ThiscolumndisplaystheIPaddressandportnumberoftheremotecomputertowhichthe
port is connected.

State:-This column displays the status of the connection.

The following image shows the sample output of this command.

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Options and parameters

O Description
p
t
i
o
n
- Displays all active TCP connections and the TCP and UDP ports on
a which the computer is listening.
- Displays Ethernet statistics, such as the number of bytes and packets sent
e and received.
- Displays active TCP
n connections,however,addressesandportnumbersareexpressednumerically
and no

Attempt is made to determine names.

- Displays active TCP connections and includes the process ID (PID)for

o each connection.
- Shows connections for the protocol specified by Protocol. In this case, the
p Protocol can be

TCP,UDP, tcpv6, orudpv6.

- Displays statistics by protocol. By default, statistics are shown for the
s TCP, UDP, ICMP, and IP protocols.
- Displays the contents of the IP routing table.
r

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The following table lists some common options of the netstat command.

Ip config
This command displays all current TCP/IP network configuration values and refreshes Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol(DHCP) and Domain Name System (DNS) settings. This command is mainly
used to view the IP addresses on the computers that are configured to obtain their IP address
automatically.

The following image shows the sample output of this command.

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The following table lists some important options of the ip config command.

Used without Displays the IP address, subnet mask, and default gateway for all adapters.
parameters

/all Displays the full TCP/IP configuration for all adapters.

/renew[Adapter] Renews DHCP configuration for all adapters (if an adapter is not specified) or
for a specific
/release[Adapter] Sends a DHCP RELEASE message to the DHCP server to release the current
DHCP configure all adapters(if an adapter is not specified)or for a specific
adapter if the Adapter parameter i
/flush dns Flushes and resets the contents of the DNS client resolver cache.

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Task 12:- Implementing static and default routes using router Configuration.

Steps:

 Go to Tool box and select any three routers. Here Router-PT

 Go to the Toolbox and select the cables and attach the routers in a linear order
 Click on Router 0 and open its config, there in se/2 give the IP address and subnet mask as
 10.10.1.2 and 255.255.255.0 respectively
 Click on Router 1 and open its config, there in se/2 give the IP address and subnet mask as
 10.10.1.1and255.255.255.0respectively
 For the same router configure the interface se/3 and give the IP address as 10.10.2.1 and subnet
mask as 255.255.255.0
 Click on Router 2 and open its config, there in se/2interfacegive the IP and subnet mask as
 10.10.2.2 and 255.255.255.0 respectively
 Now try send message from Router0 to Router1 (successful), Router1 to Router2 (successful) and
Router 0 to Router 2 (FAILED)
 The message from Router 0 to Router 2 failed because there is no path from Router 0 to Router 2 as
shown from using ‘show ip route’ command

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 Now to enable messaging from Router 0 to Router 2 set a static route from Router0 to Router2
 Click on Router 0 and open config then in settings > static fill the fields of IP address, subnet
mask and Next hop as 10.10.2.0, 255.255.255.0, 10.10.1.1 respectively.
 Now again try sending now it will be successful.
 Do similar for Router2 so it can also send messages to Router0.

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