Signals & Systems

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 Syllabus

Syllabus for Signals & Systems

Continuous-Time Signals: Fourier Series and Fourier Transform Representations, Sampling

Theorem and Applications; Discrete-Time Signals: Discrete-Time Fourier Transform (DTFT), DFT,
FFT, Z-Transform, Interpolation of Discrete-Time Signals; LTI Systems: Definition and Properties,
Causality, Stability, Impulse Response, Convolution, Poles and Zeros, Parallel and Cascade Structure,
Frequency Response, Group Delay, Phase Delay, Digital Filter Design Techniques.

Previous Year GATE Papers and Analysis

GATE Papers with answer key

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Subject wise Weightage Analysis

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 Contents

Contents

Chapters Page No.

#1. Introduction to Signals & Systems 1 – 19

 Introduction 1
 Classification of Signals 1–5
 Basic Operations on Signals 5–8
 Elementary Signals 8 – 11
 Systems 11 – 13
 Solved Examples 13 – 19

#2. Linear Time Invariant (LTI) Systems 20 – 29

 Introduction 20 – 21
 Properties of Convolution 21
 Properties/Characterization of LTI System using Impulse Response 21 – 24
 Solved Examples 24 – 29

#3. Fourier Representation of Signals 30 – 41

 Introduction 30 – 31
 Fourier Series (FS) for Continuous –Time Periodic Signals 31 – 33
 Properties of Fourier Representation 34 – 36
 Differentiation and Integration 36 – 37
 Solved Examples 38 – 41

#4. Z-Transform 42 – 50
 Introduction 42 – 43
 Properties of ROC 43
 Properties of Z – Transform 44 – 45
 Characterization of LTI System from H(z) and ROC 45 – 46
 Solved Examples 46 – 50

#5. Laplace Transform 51 – 58

 Introduction 51
 Important Properties of Laplace Transform 52 – 53
 Laplace Transform of Standard Functions 53 – 54
 Solved Examples 54 – 58

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 Contents

#6. Frequency Response of LTI Systems and Diversified Topics 59 – 66

 Frequency Response of a LTI System 59 – 60
 Standard LTI Systems 60 – 61
 Magnitude Transfer Function 61 – 62
 Sampling 62 – 63
 Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) 63
 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) 63
 Digital Filters 63 – 64
 Solved Examples 64 – 66

Reference Books 67

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 “Obstacles are those frightful things you can
see when you take your eyes off your goal."
…Henry Ford

1
CHAPTER

Introduction to Signals &

Systems

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will know:
1. Classifications of Signals
2. Basic Operations on Signals
3. Elementary Signals
4. Exponential
5. Characteristics of Systems

Introduction
Signal: Signal is defined as a function that conveys useful information about the state or behaviour of
a physical phenomenon. Signal is typically the variation with respect to an independent quantity like
time or distance as shown in figure below. Time is assumed as independent variable for remaining
part of the discussion, unless mentioned.
(1) Speech signal – plot of amplitude with respect to time [x(t)]
(2) Image –plot of intensity with respect to spatial co-ordinates [I(x, y)]
(3) Video – plot of intensity with respect to spatial co-ordinates and time [V(x, y, t)]

x(t)

t
Type equation here.

Continuous –Time Signal

System: System is defined as an entity which extracts useful information from the signal or
processes the signal as per a specific function.
E.g.: Speech Signal Filtering

Classification of Signals
Depending on property under consideration, signals can be classified in the following ways.

Deterministic vs Random Signals: A signal is said to be deterministic signal whose values can be
predicted in advance.
E.g.: A sinωt

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 Introduction to Signals & Systems

A signal is said to be random signal whose values are can’t be predicted in advance.
E.g.: Noise

Continuous-Time vs Discrete-Time Signals: Continuous-time signal is defined as a signal which is

defined for all instants of time. For example x(t)= at, where a is any constant . Discrete time signal
is a signal which is defined at specific instants of time only and is obtained by sampling a
Continuous – time signal. Hence, discrete-time signal is not defined for non-integer instants and is
often identified as sequence of numbers, denoted as x [n] where n is integer.
x[n] = x(t)|t=nT ∀n = 0, 1, 2, 3. . . .
x[n] = { x(0), x(T), x(2T). . . . . . }
Continuous-time signal Sampling Discrete- time signal

x(t) x[n]

x(T)
x(2T)

0 n
t

Demonstration of Sampling
In the figure shown above, x[n] is the discrete time signal obtained by uniform sampling of x(t) with
a sampling period T.

Analog Signal vs Digital Signal: An analog signal is defined as a signal which can take any value
between −∞ to ∞ and can be defined at either specific or ray long instant of time
E.g.: x(t) = sin(at + ϕ)

Digital signal is defined as a signal which is defined at specific instants of time and also dependent
variables can take only specific values. Digital signal is obtained from discrete-time signal by
quantization.

Periodic vs Non-Periodic Signals: A continuous –time signal is periodic if there exists T such that
x(t + T) = x(t), ∀ t ;T∈ R – {0}
If there is no such T then the signal is called non-periodic signal.
Example of periodic signal is sine waveform like x (t) = sin (t) and non-periodic is x(t) = et
Note: Even a non – periodic can be called periodic, with period ∞.

The smallest positive value of T that satisfies above condition is called fundamental period of x(t).
Also, angular frequency of continuous-time signals is defined as, Ω= 2π/T and is measured in
rad/sec.A discrete-time signal is periodic if there exists N such that
x[n] = x[n + N], ∀n ; N ∈ Z – {0}

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 Introduction to Signals & Systems

The smallest positive N that satisfies above condition is called fundamental period of x[n]. Here N is
always positive integer and angular frequency is defined as ω = 2π/N and is measured in
radians/samples.
Note 1: If x1 (t) and x2 (t) are periodic signals with periods T1 and T2 respectively, then
x(t) = x1 (t) + x2 (t) is periodic if (if and only if) T1 ⁄T2 is a rational number and period of x(t) is
least common multiple (LCM) of T1 and T2 .
Note 2: If x1 [n] is periodic with fundamental period N and x2 [n] is periodic with fundamental period
M then x[n] = x1 [n] + x2 [n] is always periodic with fundamental period equal to the least common
multiple (LCM) of M and N.
Figure below shows a signal, x(t) of period T
x(t)

2T t
−2T −T 0 T

Example of a Periodic Signal

Real vs Complex Signals: A signal x(t) is real signal if its value are only real numbers and the signal
x(t) is complex signal if its value are complex numbers.

Even and Odd Signals: A CTS x(t) is called even if x(−t)= x(t) example x(t) = cos t and it is called
odd if x(−t) = −x(t)
E.g.: x(t)= sin(t)
Conjugate Symmetric vs Skew Symmetric Signals: A continuous time signal x(t) is conjugate
symmetric if x(t) = x*(−t);∀t. Also, x(t) is conjugate skew symmetric if x(t) = −x ∗(−t); ∀t.
Note: Any arbitrary signal x(t) can be considered to constitute 2 parts as below,
x(t) = xe (t)+ x0 (t)
(x(t) + x ∗ (−t))
Where, xe (t) = conjugate symmetric part of signal = = xe ∗ (−t) and
2
(x(t) − x ∗ (−t))
x0 (t) = conjugate skew symmetric part of signal = = −x0 ∗ (−t)
2
If signal x(t) is real, x(t) constitutes even and odd parts.
x(t) = xe (t) + x0 (t)
(x(t) + x(−t))
Where, xe (t) = and xe (t) = xe (−t)
2
(x(t) − x(−t))
x0 (t) = and x0 (t) = −x0 (−t)
2
Above properties can also be applied for discrete time signals and are summarized in the following
table.

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 Introduction to Signals & Systems

Symmetry Properties Based on Nature of Signal

SL No. Nature of Signal Property Condition
1. Complex, continuous−time Conjugate symmetry x(t) = x ∗ (−t)
2. Complex, continuous−time Conjugate skew symmetry x(t) = −x ∗ (−t)
3. Real, continuous −time Even function x(t) = x(−t)
4. Real, continuous −time Odd function x(t) = −x(−t)
5. Complex, discrete −time Conjugate symmetry x[n] = x ∗ [−n]
6. Complex, discrete−time Conjugate skew symmetry x[n] = −x ∗ [−n]
7. Real, discrete−time Even function x[n] = x[−n]
8. Real, discrete−time Odd function x[n] = −x[−n]

Decomposition Based on Nature of Signal

SL No. Nature of Signal Decomposition Properties
xe (t) = xe ∗ (−t)
1. Complex, continuous –time x(t) = xe (t) + x0 (t)
x0 (t) = −x0 ∗ (−t)
xe (t) = xe (−t)
2. Real, continuous time x(t) = xe (t) + x0 (t)
x0 (t) = −x0 (−t)
xe [n] = xe ∗ [−n]
3. Complex, discrete−time x[n] = xe [n] + x0 [n]
x0 [n] = −x0 ∗ [−n]
xe [n] = xe [−n]
4. Real, discrete−time x[n] = xe [n] + x0 [n]
x0 [n] = −x0 [−n]

In the figure shown below, x1 (t), x2[n] are even signals and y1 (t), y2 [n] are odd signals.
x1(t) y1 (t)

A
+A
−T
t t
−T T T
−A

x2 [n] y2 [n]
2
1
1
−3 − 2 − 1 n
1 2 3
n −1
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3

Examples of Even and Odd Signals

If xe1 (t) and xe2 (t) are complex conjugate symmetric signals and x01 (t) and x02 (t) are complex
conjugate skew – symmetric signals, then
(a) xe1 (t) + xe2 (t) is conjugate symmetric

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 Introduction to Signals & Systems

(b) x01 (t) + x02 (t) is conjugate skew symmetric

(c) xe1 (t) xe2 (t) is conjugate symmetric
(d) x01 (t) x02 (t) is conjugate symmetric
Above applies for complex discrete-time signals also and can be equivalently derived for real
signals, based on even-odd function properties.

Energy & Power Signals

The formulas for calculation of Energy, E and power, P of a continuous/discrete-time signal are
given in table below,
Formulas for Calculation of Energy and Power
SL No. Nature of the Signal Formulas for Energy & Power Calculation
+∞ +T/2
Continuous-time, 1
1. E = ∫ [x(t)]2 dt ; P = lim ∫ [x(t)]2 dt
non-periodic T→∞ T
−∞ –T/2
Continuous-time, +∞ +T/2
1
2. periodic signal with E = ∫ [x(t)]2 dt ; P = ∫ [x(t)]2 dt
T
period T −∞ –T/2
N N
Discrete-time, 1
3. E = lim ∑ |x[n]|2 ; P = lim ∑ |x[n]|2
non-periodic N→∞ N→∞ (2N + 1)
n= −N n= −N
Discrete-time, N N
1
4. periodic signal with E = lim ∑ |x[n]|2 ; P = ∑ |x[n]|2
N→∞ (2N + 1)
period N n= −N n= −N

A signal is called energy signal if 0< E <∞ and P = 0

A signal is called power signal if 0< P <∞ and E→∞
Note: (1) Energy signal has zero average power.
(2) Power signal has infinite energy.
(3) Usually periodic signals and random signals are power signals.
(4) Usually deterministic and non-periodic signals are energy signals.

Basic Operations on Signals

Depending on nature of operation, different basic operations can be applied on dependent and
independent variables of a signal. The table below basic summaries operations that can be
performed on dependent variable of a signal.

Summary of Basic Operations on Dependent Variable of a Signal

SL No. Operation Continuous-Time Signal Discrete –Time Signal
1. Amplitude scaling y(t) = c x(t) y[n]= c x[n]
2. Addition (t)
y(t) = x1 + x2 (t) y[n] =x1 [n] + x2 [n]
3. Multiplication y(t) = x1 (t) x2 (t) y[n] =x1 [n]x2 [n]
d
4. Differentiation y(t) = (x(t)) y[n]= x[n]−x[n−1]
dt

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 Introduction to Signals & Systems

N2
T2
5. Integration y(t) = ∫ x(t)dt y[n] = ∑ x[n]
T1
n=N1

Similarly, following operations can be performed on independent variable of a signal.

Time Scaling
For continuous –time signals, y(t) = x(at). If a > 1, y(t) is obtained by compressing signal x(t) along
time axis by ‘a’ and vice versa.
If a < 1, y(t) is obtained by expanding signal x(t) along time axis by ‘a’
E.g.:
t
x(t) x(2t) x( )
2 1
1 1

t t t
−1 1 0.5 0.5 −2 2
Demonstration of Time Scaling

In Discrete-time (D-T) signals, time scaling can be divided in to two ports. One is Decimation and the
other is interpolation.

x(n) Time y(n)

Scalar

For a D-T signal x(n), the scaled version of it is given by y(n), where
y(n) = x[kn] and k is scaling factor

(i) Decimation: If value of k > 1, it would lead to reduction of samples from the original D-T
sequence. This process is known as Decimation (or) Down sampling.
Example: For a D-T sequence x(n) = {4, 3, 2, 1, 2, 3, 4}, x(2n), x(3n) etc are the decimated
↑
sequences of x(n) x[2n] = {3, 1, 3} and x(3n) = {4, 1, 4}
↑ ↑
From the above example it is clear that x(2n)and x(3n) are decimated sequences formed by
selecting every second and every third sample respectively of x(n) starting from n = 0

Note: In the process of decimation, care has to be taken that sequence is not affected by
Aliasing.

(ii) Interpolation: If the value of k < 1, it would lead to increase in samples when compared to
original sequence. This process is known as interpolation (or) up sampling.

Example: For the sequence x(n) given in last example, find x[n/2]
x[n/2] = {4, _, 3, _, 2, _, 1, _, 2, _, 3, _, 4}
↑
If the extra samples are added by zeros, it is known as zero interpolation.

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