Wireless & Mobile Communication

Unit 5 Notes
Mobile Ad Hoc Network
MANET stands for Mobile Adhoc Network also called a wireless adhoc network or Adhoc
wireless network that usually has a routable networking environment on top of a Link Layer
ad hoc network. They consist of a set of mobile nodes connected wirelessly in a self-
configured, self-healing network without having a fixed infrastructure. MANET nodes are free
to move randomly as the network topology changes frequently. Each node behaves as a router
as it forwards traffic to other specified nodes in the network.

Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a cable replacement technology. It is standard for short range wireless
communication. Bluetooth was first invented by telecoms vendor Ericsson in 1994.
Bluetooth architecture is not easy, rather it is complex. It connects other device by using
frequency hopping in time slots. It creates ad hoc networks. When bluetooth devices first
connect, a piconet master initiates the connection, others are slave devices. Piconet has one
master device, seven active slave devices. There is no direct communication between slave
units . Two or more piconets create scatternet, a master is only one piconet. Any devices that
share a master must be on the same piconet. Different piconets have a common device which
is scatternet member to relay data between the piconets. In piconet, if slave device see a device
want to communicate directly to each other, they create a new piconet, among them one acting
as a Master.
Bluetooth has two way data transfer system [2]. Asynchronous Connectionless
Communications Link (ACL).Synchronous Connection-orientated Communications Link
(SCL). Bluetooth has 3 class. Bluetooth support ad hoc networking. Bluetooth network
topologies called piconet and scatternet. It has low power, low cost, small size, and built-in
security. It offer 2.4 GHz ISM band and frequency hopping techniques with the carrier
modulated using Gaussian frequency shift keying (GFSK). It has 79 channels.

Bluetooth Protocol Stack

In bluetooth protocol stack, radio layer is the lowest layer. It avoids interference from other
signals by hopping to a new frequency after transmitting or receiving a packet. RF operation
uses a shaped, binary frequency modulation to minimize transceiver complexity. Bluetooth
base band layer is upward of radio layer. It manages physical channels and links. This layer
checks error correction, data whitening, hop selection and bluetooth security. LMP provide
link setup, authentication, and link configuration. A host controller interface creates command
line access to the baseband layer and LMP for control and to receive status information.
L2CAP provides data services to the upper-level host protocols. It provides connection-
oriented and connectionless data services. It has multiplexing capability, segmentation and
reassembly operation, and group abstractions. RFCOMM provides a simple reliable data
stream to the user, similar to TCP. It supports two device types modems; computers and
printers. TCS used to setup and control speech and data calls between Bluetooth devices. SDP
used to detect which services are available and what type of characteristics of those services
and what parameters are used to connect to them. When a mobile phone connect to a bluetooth
headset, SDP browse and check bluetooth profiles and the protocol multiplexer settings needed
to connect to each of them. OBEX is used for simple data exchange (object push, file transfer,
basic imaging, basic printing, phone book access, etc.). It is similar to Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP) but it does not require the resources that an HTTP server requires. AT
protocol use for telephony modem. AT commands provide for bluetooth device, make/break
connections and inquiry.
Wi Fi Standards
802.11 Wi-Fi Wireless LAN MAC and physical layer specification. 802.11a, b, g, ax, etc., are
amendments to the original 802.11 standard. Products that implement 802.11 standards must
pass tests and are referred to as Wi-Fi certified.
802.11a: Specifies a physical layer that operates in the 5 GHz U-NII band in the U.S. --
initially 5.15 GHz to 5.35 GHz and 5.725 GHz to 5.85 GHz -- and since expanded to
additional frequencies. Uses orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM). Enhanced
data speed to 54 Mbps. Ratified after 802.11b.
802.11b: Enhancement to 802.11 that added higher data rate modes to direct-sequence spread
spectrum already defined in the original 802.11 standard. Boosted data speed to 11 Mbps. 22
MHz bandwidth yields three nonoverlapping channels within the frequency range of 2.400
GHz to 2.4835 GHz. Beacons at 1 Mbps fall back to 5.5, 2 or 1 Mbps from 11 Mbps max.
802.11d: Enhancement to 802.11a and 802.11b that enables global roaming. Particulars can be
set at the MAC layer.
802.11e: Enhancement to 802.11 that includes quality of service features. Facilitates
prioritization of data, voice and video transmissions.
802.11g: Extends the maximum data rate of wireless LAN devices that operate in the 2.4 GHz
and, in a fashion that permits interoperation with 802.11b devices. Uses OFDM modulation.
Operates at up to 54 Mbps, with fallback speeds that include the b speeds.
802.11h: Enhancement to 802.11a that resolves interference issues. Dynamic frequency
selection. Transmit power control.
802.11i: Enhancement to 802.11 that offers additional security for wireless LAN applications.
Defines stronger encryption, authentication and key exchange, as well as options for key
caching and pre-authentication.
802.11j: Japanese regulatory extensions to 802.11a specification. Frequency range of 4.9 GHz
to 5 GHz.
802.11k: Radio resource measurements for networks using 802.11 family specifications
802.11m: Maintenance of 802.11 family specifications. Corrections and amendments to
existing documentation.
802.11n: Higher-speed standards. Several competing and noncompatible technologies; often
called pre-n. Top speeds claimed of 108 MHz, 240 MHz and 350+ MHz.
Competing proposals come from the groups Enhanced Wireless Consortium, TGn Sync and
WWiSE, and are all variations based on multiple input, multiple output, or MIMO.

IEEE 802.11b:
It is first standard developed for wireless network (IEEE 802.11) in 1997. It has maximum
coverage network of about 45 meters and operate on 2.4GHz frequency band. It provides a
maximum theoretical speed of 11 Mbps. Components of devices implementing this standard
are cheaper. This standard was very famous among customers because of inexpensive devices
and installation.
IEEE 802.11a:
The letter ‘a’ in this standard makes you think why this standard comes after 802.11b. Actually
802.11a comes along with 802.11b but it uses a new complex technology called OFDM
(orthogonal frequency division multiplexing) for signal generation. Implementation of this
standard was expensive so it was used only in businesses at that time. It operates on 5Ghz
frequency band and has a maximum theoretical speed of 54 Mbps.
IEEE 802.11g:
This standard uses same technology i.e, OFDM as 802.11a. It operates on 2.4GHz frequency
band and provides a maximum theoretical speed of 54 Mbps. 802.11g devices are compatible
with 802.11b devices but with speed of 11 Mbps. This standard provides an improvement over
802.11b standard. Now customers can enjoy a better speed and coverage at some minor
upgrades.
IEEE 802.11n (Wi-Fi 4):
It uses a technology called MIMO (multiple input multiple output) where multiple
transmitters/receivers can operate simultaneously at both transmitting and receiving end.This
multiple use of transmitters/receivers provide a significantly higher bandwidth and power. It
operates on both 2.4GHz and 5GHz frequency band and called dual band Wi-Fi. It provides a
maximum theoretical speed of 300 Mbps (450 Mbps if using three antennas).

Wi Fi Architecture

Based on the above, the aim is to identify the function that each of the computers fulfils within
the network.
Router. Equipment in charge of routing traffic to allow navigation towards the internet
Firewall. Allows traffic from the internal network to the external network and vice versa,
filters traffic by port, host or network segment
Layer 3 Switch. It has the same function of Router, but with several ports which allow direct
connection with devices, such as servers, Wi-Fi controllers, firewall, Layer 2 switches, etc.
Layer 2 Switch. Connects end devices through Ethernet ports Wireless access point or Access
Point. Interconnects wireless communication equipment, propagates SSIDs or network names.
Encryption password.
WIFI network password and each encryption is specified.
MAC Frame Format of IEEE 802.11 and addressing
IEEE 802.11 MAC layer data frame consists of 9 fields:

WiMax
The ‘World Interoperability for MicroAcess, Inc. (WiMAX)’ forum, an industry group, focuses
on creating advanced technology solution for high speed wide area internet access.The
WiMAX product certification program ensures interoperability between WiMAX equipment
from vendors worldwide. WiMAX can serve as a backbone for 802.11 hotspots for connecting
to the internet. Alternatively, users can connect mobile devices such as laptops and handsets
directly to WiMAX base stations. Mobile devices connected directly can achieve a range of 4
to 6 miles.

Some of the salient features supported by WiMAX are:

i. High data rates: - WiMAX can typically support data rates from 500 Kbps to 2 Mbps. - The
inclusion of multi-input multi-output(MIMO) antenna techniques along with flexible sub-
channelization schemes, advanced coding and modulation all enable mobile to support peak
downlink data rates of 63 Mbps per sector and peak uplink data rates of up to 28 Mbps per
sector in a 10 MHz channel.
ii. Quality of service (QoS):
• WiMAX has clearly defined QoS classes for applications with different requirements
such as VoIP, real time video streaming, file transfer and web traffic.
iii. Scalability:
• Mobile WiMAX is designed to able to work in different channelization from 1.25 to 20
MHz to comply with varied world-wide requirements.
iv. Security:
• There is support for diverse set of user credentials like SIM/USIM cards, smart cards,
digital certificates, username/password schemes.
• All this is based on relevant ‘extensible authentication protocol (EAP)’ methods for
credential type.
v. Mobility:
• Mobile WiMAX supports optimized handoff schemes with latencies less than 50ms to
ensure that real time applications such as VoIP can be performed without service
degradation.
• Flexible key management schemes assume that security is maintained during handoff.

Wi-Max Network Architecture

The overall WiMAX network comprises a number of different entities that make up the
different major areas described below. These include the following entities:
• Subscriber Station, SS / Mobile Station, MS : The Subscriber station, SS may often
be referred to as the Customer Premises Equipment, CPE. These take a variety of
forms and these may be termed "indoor CPE" or "outdoor CPE" - the terminology is
self-explanatory. The outdoor CPE has the advantage that it provides better
performance as a result of the better position of the antenna, whereas the indoor CPE
can be installed by the user. Mobile Stations may also be used. These are often in the
form of a dongle for a laptop, etc.
• Base Station, BS: The base-station forms an essential element of the WiMAX
network. It is responsible for providing the air interface to the subscriber and mobile
stations. It provides additional functionality in terms of micro-mobility management
functions, such as handoff triggering and tunnel establishment, radio resource
management, QoS policy enforcement, traffic classification, DHCP (Dynamic Host
Control Protocol) proxy, key management, session management, and multicast group
management.
 • ASN Gateway, ASN-GW: The ASN gateway within the WiMAX network
architecture typically acts as a layer 2 traffic aggregation point within the overall ASN.
The ASN-GW may also provide additional functions that include: intra-ASN location
management and paging, radio resource management and admission control, caching
of subscriber profiles and encryption keys. The ASN-GW may also include the AAA
client functionality(see below), establishment and management of mobility tunnel with
base stations, QoS and policy enforcement, foreign agent functionality for mobile IP,
and routing to the selected CSN.
• Home Agent, HA: The Home Agent within the WiMAX network is located within
the CSN. With Mobile-IP forming a key element within WiMAX technology, the
Home Agent works in conjunction with a "Foreign Agent", such as the ASN Gateway,
to provide an efficient end-to-end Mobile IP solution. The Home Agent serves as an
anchor point for subscribers, providing secure roaming with QOS capabilities.
• Authentication, Authorisation and Accounting Server, AAA: As with any
communications or wireless system requiring subscription services, an Authentication,
Authorisation and Accounting server is used. This is included within the CSN.

Network architecture of 4G mobile network:

4G Architecture (4G) stands for fourth generation cellular system.4G is evaluation of 3G to
meet the forecasted rising demand. It is an integration of various technologies including GSM,
CDMA, GPRS, IMT-2000, Wireless LAN. Data rate in 4G system will range from 20 to 100
Mbps. Fully IP based Mobile System. It supports interactive multimedia, voice, streaming
video, internet and other broadband service. It has better spectrum efficiency. It supports Ad-
hoc and multi hop network.
4 G Architecture
1. Figure shown below is Generic Mobile Communication architecture.
2. 4 G network is an integration of all heterogeneous wireless access networks such as
Ad-hoc, cellular, hotspot and satellite radio component.
3. Technologies used in 4 G are smart antennas for multiple input and multiple output
(MIMO), IPv6, VoIP, OFDM and Software defined radio (SDR) System.
Smart Antennas: Smart Antennas are Transmitting and receiving antennas. It does not require
increase power and additional frequency.
IPV6 Technology:4G uses IPV6 Technology in order to support a large number of wireless
enable devices. It enables a number of application with better multicast, security and route
optimization capabilities.
VoIP: It stands for Voice over IP. It allows only packet to be transferred eliminating
complexity of 2 protocols over the same circuit.
OFDM: OFDM stands for Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing. It is currently used as
WiMax and WiFi.
SDR: SDR stands for Software Defined Radio. It is the form of open wireless architecture.

MME- Mobility Management Entity

It is used for Paging , Authentication, Handover and Selection of Serving Gateway
SGW- Serving gateway
It is used to Routing and Forwarding user data packet.
PDN-GW Packet Data Network Gateway
It is used for user equipment (UE) IP allocation
HSS -Home Subscriber Server
It is a user Database used for service subscriber, user identification and addressing
PCRF -Policy and Charging Rule Function
It provide quality of service and charging
eNode B-evolved Node B
It is used as radio resources management and radio bearer control.
5G Network
5G will use orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) encoding bonded up to
between 100 and 800 MHz channels.
The evolution of the mobile world is not all that 5G is, therefore the breadth of 5G extends
beyond mobile communication to address all forms of communication services; in fact, it is
truly supporting the future of the digital world by enabling all types of services, including
critical/non-critical, voice/non-voice, and IoT. Promoting economic change across all sectors
and utilizing all diverse technologies ( WiFi, 4G, and new radio technologies).

In service-based or reference point representation, the interaction between network operations

is depicted. Service-based is how the 5G architecture is described.
One form of capability made available by an NF (NF Service Producer) to other authorized NF
(NF Service Consumers) through a service-based interface is a network function service. One
form of capability made available by an NF (NF Service Producer) to other authorized NF (NF
Service Consumers) through a service-based interface is a network function service.
Network functions may expose one or more services, which means that a producer may give
one or more consumers access to a service-based interface. It consists of a number of services,
each of which is composed of a number of procedures in the manner of NNRF
MANAGEMENT, NBSF MANAGEMENT, etc.

Functions of 5G network:
1. NRF(Network Repository Function): All of the 5G network functions (NFs) in the
operator’s network are stored centrally in the Network Repository Function (NRF).
The NRF provides a standards-based API that enables 5G NFs to register and find one
another. A crucial element needed to execute the new service-based architecture (SBA)
in the 5G core is NRF.
2. PCF (Policy Control Function): Policy Control Function makes it simple to develop
and implement policies in a 5G network. PCF will help you monetize and reap the
 rewards of 5G because it was created and designed using cloud-native principles to
address the demands of 5G services.
3. BSF (Binding Support Function): The Session Binding Function on the Diameter
Routing Agent (DRA) used in 4G is comparable to the 5G Binding Support Function
(BSF). When numerous Policy Control Function (PCF) systems are installed in the
network, it becomes a necessary necessity.
4. SCP (Service Communication Proxy): By granting routing control, resiliency, and
observability to the core network, Service Communication Proxy (SCP) enable
operators to securely and effectively operate their 5G network. To address many of the
issues brought on by the new service-based architecture (SBA) in the 5G core, SCP
makes advantage of IT service mesh (ISTIO) and adds crucial capabilities to make it
5G-aware.
5. NSSF (Network Slicing Selection Function): In the 5G environment, where a variety
of services are offered, the NSSF (Network Slicing Selection Function) system is a
solution to choose the best network slice available for the service requested by the user.
6. UDM (Unified Data Management)& UDR (User Data Repository): UDM is cloud-
native and created for 5G, similar to Home Subscriber Server (HSS) in LTE. It is in
charge of creating the credentials needed for authentication, granting access depending
on user subscription, and sending those credentials to the other network functions. It
retrieves the credentials from the User Data Repository (UDR). Different key 5G
features are supported by the UDM network function. In order to complete the
authentication process, it creates authentication credentials. Based on user
subscriptions, it approves network access and roaming.
7. AUSF (Authentication Server Function): 5G authentication and Key Agreement
method 5G AKA are carried out via the authentication server function. In order to
manage hidden or privacy-protected subscription identifiers, AUSF also provides
additional functionality. During the registration process, AMF(Access and Mobility
Function) is in charge of choosing the proper Authentication Server Function (AUSF).
8. NWDAF (Network Data Analytics Function): The 5G Network Data Analytics
Function (NWDAF) is intended to improve the end-user experience by streamlining
the production and consumption of key network data as well as generating insights and
taking appropriate action. By expediting the production and consumption of core
network data, creating insights, and acting on these insights, NWDAF is intended to
address market fragmentation and proprietary solutions in the field of network
analytics.
5G Core Network:
The 5G core network is the heart of 5G networking, it provides secure and reliable
connectivity to the internet and access to all of the networking services. 5G core network has
numerous essential functions for mobile networking like mobile management, subscriber data
management, authorization, authentication policy management, etc.
The 5G core network is completely software-based and native to the cloud, it allows higher
deployment agility and has flexibility and infrastructure which is similar to the cloud. Industry
experts designed the 5G core to support the network functioning of the 5G network. Therefore,
the 3GPP standard was developed which was named 5G core, it has the power to control and
manage network functions.
Next Generation Network (NGN) refers to a packet-based network and it can be used for
both telecommunication services as well as data and it supports mobility. It is able to make use
of multiple broadband capabilities, especially Quality of Services (QoS) enabled transport
technologies where the service-related functions are independent of the underlying transport-
related technologies. International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication
Standardization Sector (ITU-T) defines Next Generation Network (NGN) is a packet based
network which provides telecommunication services to users and it uses multiple broadbands,
QoS enabled transport technologies.
Fundamental characteristics of NGN :
• Packet based transfer.
• Separation of control functions for bearer capabilities, call/session – service.
• Decoupling of service and network, and provision of open interfaces (I/F).
• A wide range of services like (Real Time(RT)/ streaming/ non Real Time (RT)/
multimedia).
• Interworking with legacy networks via open I/F.
• Support of Generalized mobility.
• Support to unrestricted access by users to different service providers.
Services supported in NGN :
• Data communication services.
• Multimedia Services.
• Public interest services.
• Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)/Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN) simulation services.
• Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)/ Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN) emulation services
Next Generation Network Layer :
• In Access Layer, different types of media gateways that support connection to and
from access network with the core network are included.
• Core network layer is network handling converged services based on Internet Protocol
(IP). Control layer works as call server. It provides call control functions also provides
control of a media gateway.
• Service layer is an IT platform that creates a service creation environment extending its
functionality in order to cover new network scenarios as an intelligent network.
The below figure illustrates Next Generation Network (NGN) Layers as follows.
This basic reference model separated Transport layer (Access and Core) from Service layer. In
short Access Layer elements handles different media gateways. Core Layer handles networks
based on IP. Control Layer handles call control functions and control of media gateways.
Service Layer is an IT platform that plays role of an Intelligent Network Service Creation
Environment.

Li-Fi
LiFi (Light Fidelity) is a wireless communication technology that uses visible
light, particularly LED bulbs, to transmit data. It was first demonstrated in 2011 by Light
Fidelity (Li-Fi) technology is a wireless communication system based on the use of visible
light between the violet (800 THz) and red (400 THz). Unlike Wi-Fi which uses the radio part
of the electromagnetic spectrum, Li-Fi uses the optical spectrum i.e. Visible light part of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The principle of Li-Fi is based on sending data by amplitude
modulation of the light source in a well-defined and standardized way. LEDs can be switched
on and off faster than the human eyes can detect since the operating speed of LEDs is less than
1 microsecond. This invisible on-off activity enables data transmission using binary codes. If
the LED is on, a digital ‘1’ is transmitted and if the LED is off, a digital ‘0’ is transmitted. Also
these LEDs can be switched on and off very quickly which gives us a very nice opportunity for
transmitting data through LED lights, because there are no interfering light frequencies like
that of the radio frequencies in Wi-Fi. Li-Fi is thought to be 80% more efficient, which means
it can reach speeds of up to 1Gbps and even beyond. Li-Fi differs from fibre optic because the
Li-Fi protocol layers are suitable for wireless communication over short distances (up to 10
meters).
Hence all that is required, is some or an array of LEDs and a controller that controls/encodes
data into those LEDs. All one has to do is to vary the rate at which the LEDs flicker depending
upon the data input to LEDs. Further data rate enhancements can be made in this method, by
using array of the LEDs for parallel data transmission, or using mixtures of red , green and
blue LEDs to alter the light’s frequency, with each frequency encoding a different data
channel.
The Visible Light Communication interest group, certified by the IEEE, with its standard
approved in 2011 by IEEE as IEEE 802.15.7 is the most active one. The standard of VLC
(IEEE 802.15.7) specifies VLC consisting of mobile-to-mobile (M2M), fixed-to-mobile (F2M)
and infrastructure-to-mobile (I2M) communications. The main purpose of VLC standard is to
focus on medium-range communications for intelligent traffic systems at low-speed and on
shortrange mobile to mobile and fixed to mobile communications at high speeds to exchange
data. Data rates are supported up to 1 Gbps using various modulation schemes. IEEE 802.15.7
defines physical layer (PHY) & media access control (MAC) layer for VLC/Li-Fi. The MAC
layer supports 3 multi-access technologies: peer-to-peer, star configuration and broadcast
mode. It also handles physical layer management issues such as addressing, collision
avoidance and data acknowledgement protocols. The physical layer is divided into 3 types:
PHY I, II, III and employ a combination of different modulation schemes.
• The PHY I was established for outdoor application and works from 11.67 kbps to 267.6
kbps.
• The PHY II layer permits reaching data rates from 1.25 Mbit/s to 96 Mbit/s.
• The PHY III is used for many emissions sources with a particular modulation method called
colour shift keying (CSK). PHY III can deliver rates from 12 Mbit/s to 96 Mbit/s. The
modulation formats recognized for PHY I and PHY II are on-off keying (OOK) and variable
pulse position modulation (VPPM). The Manchester coding used for the PHY I and PHY II
layers includes the clock inside the transmitted data by representing a logic 0 with an OOK
symbol "01" and a logic 1 with an OOK symbol "10", all with a DC component. The DC
component avoids light extinction in case of an extended run of logic 0's. There are also two
Japanese standards for VLC networking (JEITA CP-1221 and CP-1222).