Solar panel

A solar panel is a device that converts sunlight into electricity by using photovoltaic (PV) cells.
PV cells are made of materials that produce excited electrons when exposed to light. These
electrons flow through a circuit and produce direct current (DC) electricity, which can be used to
power various devices or be stored in batteries. Solar panels are also known as solar cell panels,
solar electric panels, or PV modules.

Solar array mounted on a rooftop

Solar panels are usually arranged in groups called arrays or systems. A photovoltaic system
consists of one or more solar panels, an inverter that converts DC electricity to alternating
current (AC) electricity, and sometimes other components such as controllers, meters, and
trackers. Most panels are in solar farms or rooftop solar panels which supply the electricity grid.

Some advantages of solar panels are that they use a renewable and clean source of energy,
reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and lower electricity bills. Some disadvantages are that they
depend on the availability and intensity of sunlight, require cleaning, and have high initial costs.
Solar panels are widely used for residential, commercial, and industrial purposes, as well as in
space, often together with batteries.

History

In 1839, the ability of some materials to create an electrical charge from light exposure was first
observed by the French physicist Edmond Becquerel.[1] Though these initial solar panels were too
inefficient for even simple electric devices, they were used as an instrument to measure light.[2]

The observation by Becquerel was not replicated again until 1873, when the English electrical
engineer Willoughby Smith discovered that the charge could be caused by light hitting selenium.
After this discovery, William Grylls Adams and Richard Evans Day published "The action of light
on selenium" in 1876, describing the experiment they used to replicate Smith's results.[1][3]

In 1881, the American inventor Charles Fritts created the first commercial solar panel, which was
reported by Fritts as "continuous, constant and of considerable force not only by exposure to
sunlight but also to dim, diffused daylight".[4] However, these solar panels were very inefficient,
especially compared to coal-fired power plants.

In 1939, Russell Ohl created the solar cell design that is used in many modern solar panels. He
patented his design in 1941.[5] In 1954, this design was first used by Bell Labs to create the first
commercially viable silicon solar cell.[1]

Solar panel installers saw significant growth between 2008 and 2013.[6] Due to that growth many
installers had projects that were not "ideal" solar roof tops to work with and had to find solutions
to shaded roofs and orientation difficulties.[7] This challenge was initially addressed by the re-
popularization of micro-inverters and later the invention of power optimizers.

Solar panel manufacturers partnered with micro-inverter companies to create AC modules and
power optimizer companies partnered with module manufacturers to create smart modules.[8] In
2013 many solar panel manufacturers announced and began shipping their smart module
solutions.[9]

Theory and construction

From a solar cell to a PV system

Photovoltaic modules consist of a large number of solar cells and use light energy (photons)
from the Sun to generate electricity through the photovoltaic effect. Most modules use wafer-
based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells. The structural (load carrying) member of a
module can be either the top layer or the back layer. Cells must be protected from mechanical
damage and moisture. Most modules are rigid, but semi-flexible ones based on thin-film cells are
also available. The cells are usually connected electrically in series, one to another to the desired
voltage, and then in parallel to increase current. The power (in watts) of the module is the voltage
(in volts) multiplied by the current (in amperes), and depends both on the amount of light and on
the electrical load connected to the module. The manufacturing specifications on solar panels
are obtained under standard conditions, which are usually not the true operating conditions the
solar panels are exposed to on the installation site.[10]
A PV junction box is attached to the back of the solar panel and functions as its output interface.
External connections for most photovoltaic modules use MC4 connectors to facilitate easy
weatherproof connections to the rest of the system. A USB power interface can also be used.[11]
Solar panels also use metal frames consisting of racking components, brackets, reflector
shapes, and troughs to better support the panel structure.

Cell connection techniques

Solar modular cells need to be connected together to form the module, with front electrodes
blocking the solar cell front optical surface area slightly. To maximize frontal surface area
available for sunlight and improve solar cell efficiency, manufacturers use varying rear electrode
solar cell connection techniques:

Passivated emitter rear contact (PERC) adds a polymer film to capture light

Tunnel oxide passivated contact (TOPCon) adds an oxidation layer to the PERC film to capture
more light[12]

Interdigitated back contact (IBC)[13]

Arrays of PV modules

A single solar module can produce only a limited amount of power; most installations contain
multiple modules adding their voltages or currents. A photovoltaic system typically includes an
array of photovoltaic modules, an inverter, a battery pack for energy storage, a charge controller,
interconnection wiring, circuit breakers, fuses, disconnect switches, voltage meters, and
optionally a solar tracking mechanism. Equipment is carefully selected to optimize energy output
and storage, reduce power transmission losses, and convert from direct current to alternating
current.

Smart solar modules

Smart module

Smart modules are different from traditional solar panels because the power electronics
embedded in the module offers enhanced functionality such as panel-level maximum power
point tracking, monitoring, and enhanced safety. Power electronics attached to the frame of a
solar module, or connected to the photovoltaic circuit through a connector, are not properly
considered smart modules.[14]

Several companies have begun incorporating into each PV module various embedded power
electronics such as:

Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) power optimizers, a DC-to-DC converter technology
developed to maximize the power harvest from solar photovoltaic systems by compensating
for shading effects, wherein a shadow falling on a section of a module causes the electrical
output of one or more strings of cells in the module to fall to near zero, but not having the
output of the entire module fall to zero.[15]

Solar performance monitors for data and fault detection

Technology

Market-share of PV technologies since 1980

Most solar modules are currently produced from crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells made of
polycrystalline or monocrystalline silicon. In 2021, crystalline silicon accounted for 95% of
worldwide PV production,[16][17] while the rest of the overall market is made up of thin-film
technologies using cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) and
amorphous silicon (a-Si).[18]

Emerging, third-generation solar technologies use advanced thin-film cells. They produce a
relatively high-efficiency conversion for a lower cost compared with other solar technologies.
Also, high-cost, high-efficiency, and close-packed rectangular multi-junction (MJ) cells are usually
used in solar panels on spacecraft, as they offer the highest ratio of generated power per
kilogram lifted into space. MJ-cells are compound semiconductors and made of gallium
arsenide (GaAs) and other semiconductor materials. Another emerging PV technology using MJ-
cells is concentrator photovoltaics (CPV).

Thin film
 Thin-film solar cells, a second generation of photovoltaic (PV) solar cells:
Top: thin-film silicon laminates being installed onto a roof.

Middle: CIGS solar cell on a flexible plastic backing and rigid CdTe panels mounted on a supporting structure

Bottom: thin-film laminates on rooftops

Thin-film solar cells are a type of solar cell made by depositing one or more thin layers (thin films
or TFs) of photovoltaic material onto a substrate, such as glass, plastic or metal. Thin-film solar
cells are typically a few nanometers (nm) to a few microns (μm) thick–much thinner than the
wafers used in conventional crystalline silicon (c-Si) based solar cells, which can be up to
200 μm thick. Thin-film solar cells are commercially used in several technologies, including
cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS), and amorphous thin-film
silicon (a-Si, TF-Si).

Solar cells are often classified into so-called generations based on the active (sunlight-
absorbing) layers used to produce them, with the most well-established or first-generation solar
cells being made of single- or multi-crystalline silicon. This is the dominant technology currently
used in most solar PV systems. Most thin-film solar cells are classified as second generation,
made using thin layers of well-studied materials like amorphous silicon (a-Si), cadmium telluride
(CdTe), copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS), or gallium arsenide (GaAs). Solar cells made with
newer, less established materials are classified as third-generation or emerging solar cells. This
includes some innovative thin-film technologies, such as perovskite, dye-sensitized, quantum dot,
organic, and CZTS thin-film solar cells.
Thin-film cells have several advantages over first-generation silicon solar cells, including being
lighter and more flexible due to their thin construction. This makes them suitable for use in
building-integrated photovoltaics and as semi-transparent, photovoltaic glazing material that can
be laminated onto windows. Other commercial applications use rigid thin film solar panels
(interleaved between two panes of glass) in some of the world's largest photovoltaic power
stations. Additionally, the materials used in thin-film solar cells are typically produced using
simple and scalable methods more cost-effective than first-generation cells, leading to lower
environmental impacts like greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in many cases. Thin-film cells also
typically outperform renewable and non-renewable sources for electricity generation in terms of
human toxicity and heavy-metal emissions.

Despite initial challenges with efficient light conversion, especially among third-generation PV
materials, as of 2023 some thin-film solar cells have reached efficiencies of up to 29.1% for
single-junction thin-film GaAs cells, exceeding the maximum of 26.1% efficiency for standard
single-junction first-generation solar cells. Multi-junction concentrator cells incorporating thin-
film technologies have reached efficiencies of up to 47.6% as of 2023.[19]

Still, many thin-film technologies have been found to have shorter operational lifetimes and
larger degradation rates than first-generation cells in accelerated life testing, which has
contributed to their somewhat limited deployment. Globally, the PV marketshare of thin-film
technologies remains around 5% as of 2023.[20] However, thin-film technology has become
considerably more popular in the United States, where CdTe cells alone accounted for nearly 30%
of new utility-scale deployment in 2022.[21]

Mounting and tracking

Solar modules mounted on solar

trackers
 Workers install residential rooftop
solar panels

Ground

Large utility-scale solar power plants frequently use ground-mounted photovoltaic systems. Their
solar modules are held in place by racks or frames that are attached to ground-based mounting
supports.[22][23] Ground based mounting supports include:

Pole mounts, which are driven directly into the ground or embedded in concrete.

Foundation mounts, such as concrete slabs or poured footings

Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to secure the solar
module system in position and do not require ground penetration. This type of mounting
system is well suited for sites where excavation is not possible such as capped landfills and
simplifies decommissioning or relocation of solar module systems.

Solar array ground mounting

Vertical bifacial solar array

Agrivoltaic vertical bifacial solar

panels
 Vertical Bifacial vs south facing solar
array power output
Vertical Bifacial
South facing solar array

Vertical bifacial solar cells are oriented towards east and west to catch the sun's irradiance more
efficiently in the morning and evening. Applications include agrivoltaics, solar fencing, highway
and railroad noise dampeners and barricades.[24]

Roof

Roof-mounted solar power systems consist of solar modules held in place by racks or frames
attached to roof-based mounting supports.[25] Roof-based mounting supports include:

Rail mounts, which are attached directly to the roof structure and may use additional rails for
attaching the module racking or frames.

Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to secure the panel
system in position and do not require through penetration. This mounting method allows for
decommissioning or relocation of solar panel systems with no adverse effect on the roof
structure.

All wiring connecting adjacent solar modules to the energy harvesting equipment must be
installed according to local electrical codes and should be run in a conduit appropriate for the
climate conditions

Solar Canopy

Solar canopy parking lot in New

Haven at Hotel Marcel. There are EV
level 2 chargers underneath the
canopy and a 12-stall Tesla
Supercharger behind.

Solar canopies are solar arrays which are installed on top of a traditional canopy. These canopies
could be a parking lot canopy, carport, gazebo, Pergola, or patio cover.
There are many benefits, which include maximizing the space available in urban areas while also
providing shade for cars. The energy produced can be used to create electric vehicle (EV)
charging stations.[26]

Portable

Portable solar panels can ensure electric current, enough to charge devices (mobile, radio, ...) via
USB-port or to charge a powerbank f.e.

Special features of the panels include high flexibility, high durability & waterproof characteristics.
They are good for travel or camping.

A 5V, 2A, 10W solar panel with USB

port

Tracking

Solar trackers increase the energy produced per module at the cost of mechanical complexity
and increased need for maintenance. They sense the direction of the Sun and tilt or rotate the
modules as needed for maximum exposure to the light.[27][28]

Alternatively, fixed racks can hold modules stationary throughout the day at a given tilt (zenith
angle) and facing a given direction (azimuth angle). Tilt angles equivalent to an installation's
latitude are common. Some systems may also adjust the tilt angle based on the time of year.[29]

On the other hand, east- and west-facing arrays (covering an east–west facing roof, for example)
are commonly deployed. Even though such installations will not produce the maximum possible
average power from the individual solar panels, the cost of the panels is now usually cheaper
than the tracking mechanism and they can provide more economically valuable power during
morning and evening peak demands than north or south facing systems.[30]

Concentrator

Some special solar PV modules include concentrators in which light is focused by lenses or
mirrors onto smaller cells. This enables the cost-effective use of highly efficient, but expensive
cells (such as gallium arsenide) with the trade-off of using a higher solar exposure area.
Concentrating the sunlight can also raise the efficiency to around 45%.[31]

Light capture

The amount of light absorbed by a solar cell depends on the angle of incidence of whatever
direct sunlight hits it. This is partly because the amount falling on the panel is proportional to the
cosine of the angle of incidence, and partly because at high angle of incidence more light is
reflected. To maximize total energy output, modules are often oriented to face south (in the
Northern Hemisphere) or north (in the Southern Hemisphere) and tilted to allow for the latitude.
Solar tracking can be used to keep the angle of incidence small.

Solar panels are often coated with an anti-reflective coating, which is one or more thin layers of
substances with refractive indices intermediate between that of silicon and that of air. This
causes destructive interference in the reflected light, diminishing the amount. Photovoltaic
manufacturers have been working to decrease reflectance with improved anti-reflective coatings
or with textured glass.[32][33]

Power curve

A typical voltage/current curve for

individual unshadowed solar panels.
Maximum power point tracking
ensures that as much power as
possible is collected.
In general with individual solar panels, if not enough current is taken, then power isn't maximised.
If too much current is taken then the voltage collapses. The optimum current draw is roughly
proportional to the amount of sunlight striking the panel. Solar panel capacity is specified by the
MPP (maximum power point) value of solar panels in full sunlight.

Inverters

Solar inverters convert the DC power provided by panels to AC power.

Power/Voltage-curve of a partially
shaded PV module, with marked local
and global MPP

MPP (Maximum power point) of the solar panel consists of MPP voltage (Vmpp) and MPP current
(Impp). Performing maximum power point tracking (MPPT), a solar inverter samples the output (I-
V curve) from the solar cell and applies the proper electrical load to obtain maximum power.

An AC (alternating current) solar panel has a small DC to AC microinverter on the back and
produces AC power with no external DC connector. AC modules are defined by Underwriters
Laboratories as the smallest and most complete system for harvesting solar energy.[34]

Micro-inverters work independently to enable each panel to contribute its maximum possible
output for a given amount of sunlight, but can be more expensive.[35]
Module interconnection

A connection example, a blocking

diode is placed in series with each
module string, whereas bypass
diodes are placed in parallel with
modules.

Module electrical connections are made with conducting wires that take the current off the
modules and are sized according to the current rating and fault conditions, and sometimes
include in-line fuses.

Panels are typically connected in series of one or more panels to form strings to achieve a
desired output voltage, and strings can be connected in parallel to provide the desired current
capability (amperes) of the PV system.

In string connections the voltages of the modules add, but the current is determined by the
lowest performing panel. This is known as the "Christmas light effect". In parallel connections
the voltages will be the same, but the currents add. Arrays are connected up to meet the voltage
requirements of the inverters and to not greatly exceed the current limits.

Blocking and bypass diodes may be incorporated within the module or used externally to deal
with partial array shading, in order to maximize output. For series connections, bypass diodes are
placed in parallel with modules to allow current to bypass shaded modules which would
otherwise severely limit the current. For paralleled connections, a blocking diode may be placed
in series with each module's string to prevent current flowing backwards through shaded strings
thus short-circuiting other strings.
Connectors

Outdoor solar panels usually include MC4 connectors, automotive solar panels may include an
auxiliary power outlet and/or USB adapter and indoor panels may have a microinverter.

Efficiency

Reported timeline of champion solar module

energy conversion efficiencies since 1988
(National Renewable Energy Laboratory)[36]

Each module is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions (STC) and hence the
on field output power might vary. Power typically ranges from 100 to 365 Watts (W). The
efficiency of a module determines the area of a module given the same rated output – an 8%
efficient 230 W module will have twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 W module. Some
commercially available solar modules exceed 24% efficiency.[37][38] Currently, the best achieved
sunlight conversion rate (solar module efficiency) is around 21.5% in new commercial
products[39] typically lower than the efficiencies of their cells in isolation. The most efficient
mass-produced solar modules have power density values of up to 175 W/m2 (16.22 W/ft2).[40]

The current versus voltage curve of a module provides useful information about its electrical
performance.[41] Manufacturing processes often cause differences in the electrical parameters
of different modules photovoltaic, even in cells of the same type. Therefore, only the
experimental measurement of the I–V curve allows us to accurately establish the electrical
parameters of a photovoltaic device. This measurement provides highly relevant information for
the design, installation and maintenance of photovoltaic systems. Generally, the electrical
parameters of photovoltaic modules are measured by indoor tests. However, outdoor testing has
important advantages such as no expensive artificial light source required, no sample size
limitation, and more homogeneous sample illumination.

Capacity factor of solar panels is limited primarily by geographic latitude and varies significantly
depending on cloud cover, dust, day length and other factors. In the United Kingdom, seasonal
capacity factor ranges from 2% (December) to 20% (July), with average annual capacity factor of
10–11%, while in Spain the value reaches 18%.[42] Globally, capacity factor for utility-scale PV
farms was 16.1% in 2019.[43]
Overheating is the most important factor for the efficiency of the solar panel.[44]

Radiation-dependent efficiency

Depending on construction, photovoltaic modules can produce electricity from a range of

frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar radiation range (specifically,
ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence, much of the incident sunlight energy is
wasted by solar modules, and they can give far higher efficiencies if illuminated with
monochromatic light. Therefore, another design concept is to split the light into six to eight
different wavelength ranges that will produce a different color of light, and direct the beams onto
different cells tuned to those ranges.[45]

Performance and degradation

This chart illustrates the effect of clouds on

solar energy production.

Module performance is generally rated under standard test conditions (STC): irradiance of 1,000
W/m2, solar spectrum of AM 1.5 and module temperature at 25 °C.[46] The actual voltage and
current output of the module changes as lighting, temperature and load conditions change, so
there is never one specific voltage at which the module operates. Performance varies depending
on geographic location, time of day, the day of the year, amount of solar irradiance, direction and
tilt of modules, cloud cover, shading, soiling, state of charge, and temperature. Performance of a
module or panel can be measured at different time intervals with a DC clamp meter or shunt and
logged, graphed, or charted with a chart recorder or data logger.
For optimum performance, a solar panel needs to be made of similar modules oriented in the
same direction perpendicular to direct sunlight. Bypass diodes are used to circumvent broken or
shaded panels and optimize output. These bypass diodes are usually placed along groups of
solar cells to create a continuous flow.[47]

Electrical characteristics include nominal power (PMAX, measured in W), open-circuit voltage
(VOC), short-circuit current (ISC, measured in amperes), maximum power voltage (VMPP),
maximum power current (IMPP), peak power, (watt-peak, Wp), and module efficiency (%).

Open-circuit voltage or VOC is the maximum voltage the module can produce when not
connected to an electrical circuit or system.[48] VOC can be measured with a voltmeter directly on
an illuminated module's terminals or on its disconnected cable.

The peak power rating, Wp, is the maximum output under standard test conditions (not the
maximum possible output). Typical modules, which could measure approximately 1 by 2 metres
(3 ft × 7 ft), will be rated from as low as 75 W to as high as 600 W, depending on their efficiency.
At the time of testing, the test modules are binned according to their test results, and a typical
manufacturer might rate their modules in 5 W increments, and either rate them at +/- 3%, +/-5%,
+3/-0% or +5/-0%.[49][50][51]

Influence of temperature

The performance of a photovoltaic (PV) module depends on the environmental conditions,

mainly on the global incident irradiance G in the plane of the module. However, the temperature T
of the p–n junction also influences the main electrical parameters: the short circuit current ISC,
the open circuit voltage VOC and the maximum power Pmax. In general, it is known that VOC
shows a significant inverse correlation with T, while for ISC this correlation is direct, but weaker,
so that this increase does not compensate for the decrease in VOC. As a consequence, Pmax
decreases when T increases. This correlation between the power output of a solar cell and the
working temperature of its junction depends on the semiconductor material, and is due to the
influence of T on the concentration, lifetime, and mobility of the intrinsic carriers, i.e., electrons
and gaps. inside the photovoltaic cell.

Temperature sensitivity is usually described by temperature coefficients, each of which

expresses the derivative of the parameter to which it refers with respect to the junction
temperature. The values of these parameters can be found in any data sheet of the photovoltaic
module; are the following:

- β: VOC variation coefficient with respect to T, given by ∂VOC/∂T.

- α: Coefficient of variation of ISC with respect to T, given by ∂ISC/∂T.

- δ: Coefficient of variation of Pmax with respect to T, given by ∂Pmax/∂T.

Techniques for estimating these coefficients from experimental data can be found in the
literature[52]

Degradation

The ability of solar modules to withstand damage by rain, hail, heavy snow load, and cycles of
heat and cold varies by manufacturer, although most solar panels on the U.S. market are UL
listed, meaning they have gone through testing to withstand hail.[53]

Potential-induced degradation (also called PID) is a potential-induced performance degradation

in crystalline photovoltaic modules, caused by so-called stray currents.[54] This effect may cause
power loss of up to 30%.[55]

Advancements in photovoltaic technologies have brought about the process of "doping" the
silicon substrate to lower the activation energy thereby making the panel more efficient in
converting photons to retrievable electrons.[56]

Chemicals such as boron (p-type) are applied into the semiconductor crystal in order to create
donor and acceptor energy levels substantially closer to the valence and conductor bands.[57] In
doing so, the addition of boron impurity allows the activation energy to decrease twenty-fold
from 1.12 eV to 0.05 eV. Since the potential difference (EB) is so low, the boron is able to
thermally ionize at room temperatures. This allows for free energy carriers in the conduction and
valence bands thereby allowing greater conversion of photons to electrons.

The power output of a photovoltaic (PV) device decreases over time. This decrease is due to its
exposure to solar radiation as well as other external conditions. The degradation index, which is
defined as the annual percentage of output power loss, is a key factor in determining the long-
term production of a photovoltaic plant. To estimate this degradation, the percentage of
decrease associated with each of the electrical parameters. The individual degradation of a
photovoltaic module can significantly influence the performance of a complete string.
Furthermore, not all modules in the same installation decrease their performance at exactly the
same rate. Given a set of modules exposed to long-term outdoor conditions, the individual
degradation of the main electrical parameters and the increase in their dispersion must be
considered. As each module tends to degrade differently, the behavior of the modules will be
increasingly different over time, negatively affecting the overall performance of the plant.

There are several studies dealing with the power degradation analysis of modules based on
different photovoltaic technologies available in the literature. According to a recent study,[58] the
degradation of crystalline silicon modules is very regular, oscillating between 0.8% and 1.0% per
year.

On the other hand, if we analyze the performance of thin-film photovoltaic modules, an initial
period of strong degradation is observed (which can last several months and even up to 2 years),
followed by a later stage in which the degradation stabilizes, being then comparable to that of
crystalline silicon.[59] Strong seasonal variations are also observed in such thin-film technologies
because the influence of the solar spectrum is much greater. For example, for modules of
amorphous silicon, micromorphic silicon or cadmium telluride, we are talking about annual
degradation rates for the first years of between 3% and 4%.[60] However, other technologies, such
as CIGS, show much lower degradation rates, even in those early years.

Maintenance

General cleaning of ground-based

solar panels at the Shanta Gold mine
in Tanzania

Deeper level of cleaning with pressure

washing of the car port solar panels
at Googleplex, Mountain View,
California

Solar panel conversion efficiency, typically in the 20% range, is reduced by the accumulation of
dust, grime, pollen, and other particulates on the solar panels, collectively referred to as soiling.
"A dirty solar panel can reduce its power capabilities by up to 30% in high dust/pollen or desert
areas", says Seamus Curran, associate professor of physics at the University of Houston and
director of the Institute for NanoEnergy, which specializes in the design, engineering, and
assembly of nanostructures.[61] The average soiling loss in the world in 2018 is estimated to be
at least 3% – 4%.[62]
Paying to have solar panels cleaned is a good investment in many regions, as of 2019.[62]
However, in some regions, cleaning is not cost-effective. In California as of 2013 soiling-induced
financial losses were rarely enough to warrant the cost of washing the panels. On average,
panels in California lost a little less than 0.05% of their overall efficiency per day.[63]

There are also occupational hazards with solar panel installation and maintenance. A 2015–
2018 study in the UK investigated 80 PV-related incidents of fire, with over 20 "serious fires"
directly caused by PV installation, including 37 domestic buildings and 6 solar farms. In 1⁄3 of
the incidents a root cause was not established and in a majority of others was caused by poor
installation, faulty product or design issues. The most frequent single element causing fires was
the DC isolators.[64]

A 2021 study by kWh Analytics determined median annual degradation of PV systems at 1.09%
for residential and 0.8% for non-residential ones, almost twice that previously assumed.[65] A
2021 module reliability study found an increasing trend in solar module failure rates with 30% of
manufacturers experiencing safety failures related to junction boxes (growth from 20%) and 26%
bill-of-materials failures (growth from 20%).[66]

Cleaning methods for solar panels can be divided into 5 groups: manual tools, mechanized tools
(such as tractor mounted brushes), installed hydraulic systems (such as sprinklers), installed
robotic systems, and deployable robots. Manual cleaning tools are by far the most prevalent
method of cleaning, most likely because of the low purchase cost. However, in a Saudi Arabian
study done in 2014, it was found that "installed robotic systems, mechanized systems, and
installed hydraulic systems are likely the three most promising technologies for use in cleaning
solar panels".[67]

Waste and recycling

There were 30 thousand tonnes of PV waste in 2021, and the annual amount was estimated by
Bloomberg NEF to rise to more than 1 million tons by 2035 and more than 10 million by 2050.[68]
For comparison, 750 million tons of fly ash waste was produced by coal power in 2022.[69] In the
United States, around 90% of decommissioned solar panels end up in landfills as of 2023.[70]
Most parts of a solar module can be recycled including up to 95% of certain semiconductor
materials or the glass as well as large amounts of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.[71] Some
private companies and non-profit organizations take-back and recycle end-of-life modules.[72] EU
law requires manufacturers to ensure their solar panels are recycled properly. Similar legislation
is underway in Japan, India, and Australia.[73] A 2023 Australian report said that there is a market
for quality used panels and made recommendations for increasing reuse.[74]: 33

Recycling possibilities depend on the kind of technology used in the modules:

 Silicon based modules: aluminum frames and junction boxes are dismantled manually at the
beginning of the process. The module is then crushed in a mill and the different fractions are
separated – glass, plastics and metals.[75] It is possible to recover more than 80% of the
incoming weight.[76] This process can be performed by flat glass recyclers, since the shape
and composition of a PV module is similar to flat glass used in the building and automotive
industry. The recovered glass, for example, is readily accepted by the glass foam and glass
insulation industry.

Non-silicon based modules: they require specific recycling technologies such as the use of
chemical baths in order to separate the different semiconductor materials.[77] For cadmium
telluride modules, the recycling process begins by crushing the module and subsequently
separating the different fractions. This recycling process is designed to recover up to 90% of
the glass and 95% of the semiconductor materials contained.[78] Some commercial-scale
recycling facilities have been created in recent years by private companies.[79]

Since 2010, there is an annual European conference bringing together manufacturers, recyclers
and researchers to look at the future of PV module recycling.[80][81]

Production

The production of PV systems has followed a classic Top producers of PV systems, by

learning curve effect, with significant cost reduction shipped capacity in gigawatts

occurring alongside large rises in efficiency and production Shipments

output.[83] Module producer in 2019

(GW)[82]

With over 100% year-on-year growth in PV system installation, Jinko Solar 14.2
PV module makers dramatically increased their shipments of JA Solar 10.3
solar modules in 2019. They actively expanded their capacity Trina Solar 9.7
[84]
and turned themselves into gigawatt GW players.
LONGi Solar 9.0
According to Pulse Solar, five of the top ten PV module
Canadian Solar 8.5
companies in 2019 have experienced a rise in solar panel
Hanwha Q Cells 7.3
production by at least 25% compared to 2019.[85]
Risen Energy 7.0
The basis of producing most solar panels is mostly on the First Solar 5.5
use of silicon cells. These silicon cells are typically 10–20% GCL System 4.8
[86]
efficient at converting sunlight into electricity, with newer Shunfeng Photovoltaic 4.0
[87]
production models exceeding 22%.

In 2018, the world's top five solar module producers in terms of shipped capacity during the
calendar year of 2018 were Jinko Solar, JA Solar, Trina Solar, Longi solar, and Canadian Solar.[88]
Price

Swanson's law–stating that solar module prices

have dropped about 20% for each doubling of
installed capacity—defines the "learning rate" of
solar photovoltaics.[89][90]

The price of solar electrical power has continued to fall so that in many countries it has become
cheaper than fossil fuel electricity from the electricity grid since 2012, a phenomenon known as
grid parity.[91] With the rise of global awareness, institutions such as the IRS have adopted a tax
credit format, refunding a portion of any solar panel array for private use.[92] The price of a solar
array only continues to fall.

Average pricing information divides in three pricing categories: those buying small quantities
(modules of all sizes in the kilowatt range annually), mid-range buyers (typically up to 10 MWp
annually), and large quantity buyers (self-explanatory—and with access to the lowest prices).
Over the long term there is clearly a systematic reduction in the price of cells and modules. For
example, in 2012 it was estimated that the quantity cost per watt was about US$0.60, which was
250 times lower than the cost in 1970 of US$150.[93][94] A 2015 study shows price/kWh dropping
by 10% per year since 1980, and predicts that solar could contribute 20% of total electricity
consumption by 2030, whereas the International Energy Agency predicts 16% by 2050.[95]

Real-world energy production costs depend a great deal on local weather conditions. In a cloudy
country such as the United Kingdom, the cost per produced kWh is higher than in sunnier
countries like Spain.

Short term normalized cost comparisons

demonstrating value of various electric
generation technologies[96]
 Long term normalized cost comparisons
demonstrating value of various electric
generation technologies[96]

Following to RMI, Balance-of-System (BoS) elements, this is, non-module cost of non-
microinverter solar modules (as wiring, converters, racking systems and various components)
make up about half of the total costs of installations.

For merchant solar power stations, where the electricity is being sold into the electricity
transmission network, the cost of solar energy will need to match the wholesale electricity price.
This point is sometimes called 'wholesale grid parity' or 'busbar parity'.[91]

Standards

Standards generally used in photovoltaic modules:

IEC 61215 (crystalline silicon performance), 61646 (thin film performance) and 61730 (all
modules, safety), 61853 (Photovoltaic module performance testing & energy rating)

ISO 9488 Solar energy—Vocabulary.

UL 1703 from Underwriters Laboratories

UL 1741 from Underwriters Laboratories

UL 2703 from Underwriters Laboratories

CE mark

Electrical Safety Tester (EST) Series (EST-460, EST-22V, EST-22H, EST-110).

Applications

There are many practical applications for the use of solar panels or photovoltaics. It can first be
used in agriculture as a power source for irrigation. In health care solar panels can be used to
refrigerate medical supplies. It can also be used for infrastructure. PV modules are used in
photovoltaic systems and include a large variety of electric devices:

Agrivoltaics

Solar canals
 Photovoltaic power stations

Rooftop solar PV systems

Standalone PV systems

Solar hybrid power systems

Concentrated photovoltaics

Floating solar; water-borne solar panels

Solar planes

Solar-powered water purification

Solar-pumped lasers

Solar vehicles

Solar water heating

Solar panels on spacecraft and space stations

Solar landfill

Limitations

Impact on electricity network

With the increasing levels of rooftop photovoltaic systems, the energy flow becomes 2-way.
When there is more local generation than consumption, electricity is exported to the grid.
However, an electricity network traditionally is not designed to deal with the 2- way energy
transfer. Therefore, some technical issues may occur. For example, in Queensland Australia,
more than 30% of households used rooftop PV by the end of 2017. The duck curve appeared
often for a lot of communities from 2015 onwards. An over-voltage issue may result as the
electricity flows from PV households back to the network.[97] There are solutions to manage the
over voltage issue, such as regulating PV inverter power factor, new voltage and energy control
equipment at the electricity distributor level, re-conducting the electricity wires, demand side
management, etc. There are often limitations and costs related to these solutions.

For rooftop solar to be able to provide enough backup power during a power cut a battery is
often also required.[98]
Quality assurance

Solar module quality assurance involves testing and evaluating solar cells and Solar Panels to
ensure the quality requirements of them are met. Solar modules (or panels) are expected to have
a long service life between 20 and 40 years.[99] They should continually and reliably convey and
deliver the power anticipated. Solar modules can be tested through a combination of physical
tests, laboratory studies, and numerical analyses.[100] Furthermore, solar modules need to be
assessed throughout the different stages of their life cycle. Various companies such as Southern
Research Energy & Environment, SGS Consumer Testing Services, TÜV Rheinland, Sinovoltaics,
Clean Energy Associates (CEA), CSA Solar International and Enertis provide services in solar
module quality assurance."The implementation of consistent traceable and stable manufacturing
processes becomes mandatory to safeguard and ensure the quality of the PV Modules" [101]

Stages of testing

The lifecycle stages of testing solar modules can include: the conceptual phase, manufacturing
phase, transportation and installation, commissioning phase, and the in-service phase.
Depending on the test phase, different test principles may apply.

Conceptual phase

The first stage can involve design verification where the expected output of the module is tested
through computer simulation. Further, the modules ability to withstand natural environment
conditions such as temperature, rain, hail, snow, corrosion, dust, lightning, horizon and near-
shadow effects is tested. The layout for design and construction of the module and the quality of
components and installation can also be tested at this stage.

Manufacturing phase

Inspecting manufacturers of components is carried through visitation. The inspection can

include assembly checks, material testing supervision and Non Destructive Testing (NDT).
Certification is carried out according to ANSI/UL1703, IEC 17025, IEC 61215, IEC 61646, IEC
61701 and IEC 61730-1/-2.

See also

Renewable energy
portal

Energy portal

Daisy chain (electrical engineering)

 Digital modeling and fabrication

Domestic energy consumption

Grid-tied electrical system

Growth of photovoltaics

Solar charger

Solar cooker

Solar still

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