SQL (Structured Query Language) is a standard language used to interact with relational databases.
Below is a comprehensive list of SQL syntax categories and their common commands. Note that this is
not an exhaustive list, but it covers the most widely used SQL syntax.
### **1. Data Definition Language (DDL)**
DDL commands are used to define and manage database schema.
- **CREATE**: Create a new database object (e.g., table, view, index).
```sql
CREATE DATABASE database_name;
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype,
column2 datatype ... );
- **ALTER**: Modify an existing database object.
```sql
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name datatype;
ALTER TABLE table_name DROP COLUMN column_name;
```
- **DROP**: Delete a database object.
```sql
DROP DATABASE database_name;
DROP TABLE table_name;
```
- **TRUNCATE**: Remove all rows from a table without logging individual row deletions.
```sql
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;
```
---
### **2. Data Manipulation Language (DML)**
DML commands are used to manipulate data in tables.
- **SELECT**: Retrieve data from a table.
```sql
SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_name WHERE condition;
SELECT * FROM table_name;
```
- **INSERT**: Add new rows to a table.
```sql
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2) VALUES (value1, value2);
```
- **UPDATE**: Modify existing rows in a table.
```sql
UPDATE table_name SET column1 = value1 WHERE condition;
```
- **DELETE**: Remove rows from a table.
```sql
DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;
```
---
### **3. Data Query Language (DQL)**
DQL is primarily used for querying data. The main command is:
- **SELECT**: Retrieve data from one or more tables.
```sql
SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_name WHERE condition;
```
---
### **4. Data Control Language (DCL)**
DCL commands are used to control access to the database.
- **GRANT**: Give privileges to users.
```sql
GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON table_name TO user_name;
```
- **REVOKE**: Remove privileges from users.
```sql
REVOKE SELECT, INSERT ON table_name FROM user_name;
```
---
### **5. Transaction Control Language (TCL)**
TCL commands manage transactions in a database.
- **COMMIT**: Save changes made during the transaction.
```sql
COMMIT;
```
- **ROLLBACK**: Undo changes made during the transaction.
```sql
ROLLBACK;
```
- **SAVEPOINT**: Set a point within a transaction to which you can roll back.
```sql
SAVEPOINT savepoint_name;
```
- **SET TRANSACTION**: Define properties for a transaction.
```sql
SET TRANSACTION READ ONLY;
```
---
### **6. Constraints**
Constraints are rules enforced on data in tables.
- **NOT NULL**: Ensures a column cannot have a NULL value.
- **UNIQUE**: Ensures all values in a column are unique.
- **PRIMARY KEY**: A combination of NOT NULL and UNIQUE. Uniquely identifies each row.
- **FOREIGN KEY**: Ensures referential integrity between tables.
- **CHECK**: Ensures a condition is met.
- **DEFAULT**: Sets a default value for a column.
Example:
```sql
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype NOT NULL,
column2 datatype UNIQUE,
column3 datatype DEFAULT 'default_value',
column4 datatype CHECK (column4 > 0),
PRIMARY KEY (column1),
FOREIGN KEY (column2) REFERENCES other_table(column_name)
);
```
---
### **7. Joins**
Joins are used to combine rows from two or more tables.
- **INNER JOIN**: Returns rows with matching values in both tables.
```sql
SELECT columns FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2 ON table1.column = table2.column;
```
- **LEFT JOIN (OUTER JOIN)**: Returns all rows from the left table and matching rows from the right
table.
```sql
SELECT columns FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2 ON table1.column = table2.column;
```
- **RIGHT JOIN (OUTER JOIN)**: Returns all rows from the right table and matching rows from the left
table.
```sql
SELECT columns FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2 ON table1.column = table2.column;
```
- **FULL JOIN (OUTER JOIN)**: Returns rows when there is a match in either table.
```sql
SELECT columns FROM table1
FULL JOIN table2 ON table1.column = table2.column;
```
- **CROSS JOIN**: Returns the Cartesian product of two tables.
```sql
SELECT columns FROM table1
CROSS JOIN table2;
```
---
### **8. Subqueries**
Subqueries are queries nested inside another query.
- **Example**:
```sql
SELECT column1 FROM table_name
WHERE column2 = (SELECT column2 FROM other_table WHERE condition);
```
---
### **9. Aggregate Functions**
Aggregate functions perform calculations on a set of values.
- **COUNT()**: Count the number of rows.
```sql
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM table_name;
```
- **SUM()**: Calculate the sum of a column.
```sql
SELECT SUM(column_name) FROM table_name;
```
- **AVG()**: Calculate the average of a column.
```sql
SELECT AVG(column_name) FROM table_name;
```
- **MIN()**: Find the minimum value.
```sql
SELECT MIN(column_name) FROM table_name;
```
- **MAX()**: Find the maximum value.
```sql
SELECT MAX(column_name) FROM table_name;
```
---
### **10. String Functions**
String functions manipulate text data.
- **UPPER()**: Convert to uppercase.
```sql
SELECT UPPER(column_name) FROM table_name;
```
- **LOWER()**: Convert to lowercase.
```sql
SELECT LOWER(column_name) FROM table_name;
```
- **CONCAT()**: Concatenate strings.
```sql
SELECT CONCAT(column1, column2) FROM table_name;
```
- **SUBSTRING()**: Extract a substring.
```sql
SELECT SUBSTRING(column_name, start, length) FROM table_name;
```
---
### **11. Date and Time Functions**
Date and time functions manipulate date/time data.
- **NOW()**: Get the current date and time.
```sql
SELECT NOW();
```
- **CURDATE()**: Get the current date.
```sql
SELECT CURDATE();
```
- **DATEDIFF()**: Calculate the difference between two dates.
```sql
SELECT DATEDIFF(date1, date2);
```
---
### **12. Other Clauses**
- **GROUP BY**: Group rows with the same values.
```sql
SELECT column_name, COUNT(*) FROM table_name GROUP BY column_name;
```
- **HAVING**: Filter groups after aggregation.
```sql
SELECT column_name, COUNT(*) FROM table_name GROUP BY column_name HAVING COUNT(*) > 1;
```
- **ORDER BY**: Sort the result set.
```sql
SELECT column_name FROM table_name ORDER BY column_name ASC;
```
- **LIMIT**: Limit the number of rows returned.
```sql
SELECT column_name FROM table_name LIMIT 10;
```
---
This is a high-level overview of SQL syntax. Depending on the database system (e.g., MySQL, PostgreSQL,
SQL Server, Oracle), there may be additional features or slight variations in syntax.
