Appendix E

Fresnel Diffraction and Fraunhofer

Diffraction

Here we will study Fresnel diffraction and Fraunhofer diffraction in detail [1].

E.1 How Fresnel and Fraunhofer Diffraction Patterns Are Generated

The diffraction irradiance pattern will very much depend on the distance from the aperture to the obser-
vation point. Figure E.1 is a rough illustration of the various diffraction irradiance patterns that can be
observed at different distances from the aperture, while it is being irradiated with collimated light.


1 Near-field pattern:
Irradiance pattern observed very close to the aperture (z < a few wavelengths).

2 Fresnel diffraction pattern:
Irradiance pattern observed at an intermediate distance from the aperture.

3 Far-field pattern (Fraunhofer diffraction pattern):
Irradiance pattern observed at a very great distance from the aperture (z > D2 ∕𝜆).

Just past the aperture (near-field), the irradiance pattern observed is very simple: it reveals nothing more
than the shape of the aperture. However, at a distance more than a few wavelengths from the aperture
(Fresnel region), the irradiance pattern changes: it now consists of a combination of the shape of the
aperture and the diffraction pattern generated by the edge of the aperture. Finally, at a distance which
is sufficiently far from the aperture (far-field), the shape of the aperture disappears entirely from the
irradiance pattern, which now only displays the diffraction pattern.

E.2 Fundamentals of Diffraction Theory

In Figure E.2, a light wave from a point source O is diffracted at point P in the aperture and gen-
erates a diffraction field at an observation point Q on the screen. The field (which has a complex

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298 Appendix E: Fresnel Diffraction and Fraunhofer Diffraction

Aperture Near-field pattern Fresnel diffraction pattern Far-field pattern

Incident light
A few λs D2/λ

Figure E.1 Diffraction irradiance patterns observed at various distances from the aperture

y
Y
Wave front
x
P(x, y, z) θ r Q (X, Y, Z)
r0
x
O X

z
z=0 z=Z
r0 Z

Figure E.2 Diffraction from an aperture

amplitude) at Q will be of the form shown in Equation (E.1), provided that the following conditions are
satisfied:

1. The aperture size is sufficiently large when compared with the wavelength.
2. The distances from the source O to the aperture P, and from the aperture P to the observation point Q
are sufficiently long, when compared with the size of the aperture.

j𝜀0 K(𝜃)
U(X, Y) ≅ exp(−jkr0 ) exp(−jkr) dS (E.1)
𝜆 ∫∫ r0 r
where
1 + cos 𝜃
K(𝜃) ≡ (E.2)
2

In Equation (E.1), 𝜀0 represents the amplitude of the wave at a unit distance from the source, dS is a
tiny sector of the area of the aperture, and K(𝜃) is the inclination factor, which can be approximated by
the equation K(𝜃) ≈ 1 for diffraction waves situated near the axis. Equation (E.1) is commonly referred
to as the Kirchhoff approximation. It applies to all diffraction-related phenomena. The following remarks
illustrate the significance of the terms used in Equation (E.1).

1. If coherent light is used, then the secondary waves from the aperture will interfere with each other on
the observation plane.
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Appendix E: Fresnel Diffraction and Fraunhofer Diffraction 299

P
Primary wave θ
O Q
Secondary wave

Figure E.3 Inclination factor K(𝜃) = (1 + cos 𝜃)∕2

2. The term 1/(r0 r) in the integral signifies that the amplitude of the spherical wave will decrease in
inverse proportion to the distance traveled, while the irradiance will decrease in inverse proportion to
the square of the distance traveled.
3. The product exp[−jkr0 ]exp(−jkr) in the integral signifies that the phase delay will be proportional to
the distance traveled from the source, that is, l = r0 + r.

exp[−jkl] = exp[−jk(r0 + r)] = exp[−jkr0 ] exp[−jkr]

4. The term j /𝜆 signifies that the secondary waves from the aperture will have an amplitude proportional
to 1/𝜆, and a phase shift of 𝜋/2 rad [∵j = exp(j𝜋∕2)].
5. As shown in Figure E.3, the term K (𝜃) in the integral means that the amplitude of the secondary wave
from the aperture will have a maximum value of 1 in the direction of propagation and will have a
value of zero when the wave is traveling in the reverse direction.

(∵(1 + cos 0)∕2 = 1, and (1 + cos 𝜋)∕2 = 0).

We can assume that K(𝜃) ≈ 1 for waves traveling forward near the axis.

E.3 Fresnel Diffraction

In Figure E.2, P(x, y, z) is a point on the wave front at the aperture, whose coordinates have their origin
at the center of the aperture, and Q(X,Y) represents the observation point on a screen which is placed at a
distance Z from the aperture. The distance r from P (the wave front at the aperture) to Q (the observation
point) can be expressed as follows:
√
r = (X − x)2 + (Y − y)2 + (Z − z)2 (E.3)

Since P(x, y, z) is situated on the wave front, which is a sphere whose center is at O, the values x, y, z
can be expressed as:
x2 + y2 + (z + r0 )2 = r0 2 (E.4)

If |z| << r0 , then z in Equation (E.4) can be approximated as follows:

x2 + y2
z=− (E.5)
2r0
We can substitute Equation (E.5) into Equation (E.3) and expand the results into the following series:
( ) ( )
X2 + Y 2 xX + yY x2 + y2
r =Z 1+ − − + ··· (E.6)
2Z 2 Z 2Zh
Zh is the harmonic mean (1∕Zh = 1∕r0 + 1∕Z) between the two distances r0 (from the object to the
aperture) and Z (from the aperture to the image). If we irradiate a plane wave perpendicularly onto the
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300 Appendix E: Fresnel Diffraction and Fraunhofer Diffraction

aperture, r0 tends towards ∞, and then Zh tends towards Z. When the aperture size is small (i.e., when
x, y are small comparing with Z, r0 ), we can drop the third and subsequent terms in Equation (E.6).
Substituting Equation (E.6) into Equation (E.1), we obtain:
[ ] [ ]
x2 + y2 xX + yY
U(X, Y) = C u0 (x, y) exp −jk exp jk dxdy (E.7a)
∫∫ 2Z Z
[ ( )]
j𝜀 exp(−jkr0 ) X2 + Y 2
C≡ 0 exp −jkZ 1 + (E.7b)
𝜆r0 Z 2Z 2
Here, we placed a body which has an amplitude transmission coefficient of u0 (x,y) at the aperture as in
Equation (E.7a), and C is a constant which is independent of the aperture coordinates x and y. Equation
(E.7a) is commonly referred to as the Fresnel diffraction equation [1,2].

E.4 Fraunhofer Diffraction

When both the source and the observation point are situated far enough from the aperture (i.e., Zh >>
k(x2 + y2 )∕2), the term exp[−jk(x2 + y2 )∕(2Z)] can be dropped from Equation (E.7a), as it is identical to
unity, for all practical purposes. This gives us the following equations:
[ ]
xX + yY
U(X, Y) = C u0 (x, y) exp jk dxdy (E.8a)
∫∫ Z
[ ]
j𝜀 exp(−jkr0 ) X2 + Y 2
C≡ 0 exp[−jkZ] exp −jk (E.8b)
𝜆r0 Z 2Z
Combining Equation (E.8a) and Equation (E.8b), we obtain:

[ ] [ ]
j𝜀0 exp(−jkr0 ) exp(−jkZ) X2 + Y 2 xX + yY
U(X, Y) = exp −jk u0 (x, y) exp jk dxdy
𝜆r0 Z 2Z ∫∫ Z
(E.8c)

Equation (E.8c) is commonly referred to as the Fraunhofer diffraction equation [1, 2]. We can compare
Equation (E.8c) with Equation (9.29), which is the Fraunhofer diffraction equation that we discussed in
Chapter 9, but differently expressed.
[ ] [ ]
j X2 + Y 2 Xx + Yy
U(X, Y) ≅ exp[−jkZ] exp −jk u(x, y) exp jk dxdy (9.29)
𝜆Z 2Z ∫∫ Z
In Equation (E.8c), if we drop the term exp[−jkr0 ] (which represents a constant phase shift), and define
u(x, y) in Equation (9.29) as follows:
𝜀
u(x, y) = 0 u0 (x, y)
r0

then we can see that Equation (9.29) is indeed equivalent to Equation (E.8c). The term exp[−jk(X 2 +
Y 2 )∕(2Z)] which is just before the integral, represents a spherical wave front propagating along the z-axis.
Moreover, Equation (8.20), which we discussed in Chapter 8, turns out to be equivalent to Equation
(E.8c).
𝜀
U = A ej(𝜔t−kR) ejk(xX+yY)∕R dS (8.20)
R ∫ ∫Aperture
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Appendix E: Fresnel Diffraction and Fraunhofer Diffraction 301

Here in Equation (E.8c), we replaced Z by R, dropped the term j exp[−jkr0 ] (which represents a constant
phase shift), the term exp[−jk(X 2 + Y 2 )∕(2Z)] (assuming k(X 2 + Y 2 ) << 2Z) and the term u0 (x,y) (an
amplitude transmission coefficient of a body placed at the aperture), and defined 𝜀A (the amplitude of the
wave at the aperture) as follows:
𝜀
𝜀A = 0
λr0

References
[1] Sagai, J. (1997) Kogaku no Kiso, Corona Publishing, Co., Ltd, Japan (in Japanese).
[2] Suhara, T. (1998) Koha-kogaku, Corona Publishing Co., Ltd, Japan (in Japanese).