Assembly Programming Language

For Beginners : Learn Assembly

Programming language
(Language of Book : English)
Author
Kavishankar Panchtilak
(Professional Blogger, Digital Entrepreneur)
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Kavis Web Designer
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 Table Of Contents

Assembly - Introduction
What is Assembly Language?
Advantages of Assembly Language
Basic Features of PC Hardware
Binary Number System
Hexadecimal Number System
Binary Arithmetic
Addressing Data in Memory
Assembly - Environment Setup
Local Environment Setup
Installing NASM
Assembly - Basic Syntax
The data Section
The bss Section
The text section
Comments
Assembly Language Statements
Syntax of Assembly Language Statements
The Hello World Program in Assembly
Compiling and Linking an Assembly Program in NASM
Assembly - Memory Segments
Memory Segments
Assembly - Registers
Processor Registers
Data Registers
 Pointer Registers
Index Registers
Control Registers
Segment Registers
Example
Assembly - System Calls
Linux System Calls
Example
Assembly - Addressing Modes
Register Addressing
Immediate Addressing
Direct Memory Addressing
Direct-Offset Addressing
Indirect Memory Addressing
The MOV Instruction
Syntax
Example
Assembly - Variables
Allocating Storage Space for Initialized Data
Allocating Storage Space for Uninitialized Data
Multiple Definitions
Multiple Initializations
Assembly - Constants
The EQU Directive
Example
The %assign Directive
The %define Directive
Assembly - Arithmetic Instructions
The INC Instruction
 Syntax
Example
The DEC Instruction
Syntax
Example
The ADD and SUB Instructions
Syntax
Example
The MUL/IMUL Instruction
Syntax
Example
Example
The DIV/IDIV Instructions
Syntax
Example
Assembly - Logical Instructions
The AND Instruction
Example
The OR Instruction
Example
The XOR Instruction
The TEST Instruction
The NOT Instruction
Assembly - Conditions
CMP Instruction
Syntax
Example
Unconditional Jump
Syntax
 Example
Conditional Jump
Example
Assembly - Loops
Example
Assembly - Numbers
ASCII Representation
BCD Representation
Example
Assembly - Strings
String Instructions
Repetition Prefixes
Assembly - Arrays
Example
Assembly - Procedures
Syntax
Example
Stacks Data Structure
Example
Assembly - Recursion
Assembly - Macros
Example
Assembly - File Management
File Descriptor
File Pointer
File Handling System Calls
Creating and Opening a File
Opening an Existing File
Reading from a File
 Writing to a File
Closing a File
Updating a File
Example
Assembly - Memory Management
Example

Assembly - Introduction
What is Assembly Language?
Each personal computer has a microprocessor that manages the computer's
arithmetical, logical, and control activities.
Each family of processors has its own set of instructions for handling
various operations such as getting input from the keyboard, displaying
information on screen and performing various other jobs. These sets of
instructions are called 'machine language instructions'.
A processor understands only machine language instructions, which are
strings of 1's and 0's. However, machine language is too obscure and
complex for use in software development. So, the low-level assembly
language is designed for a specific family of processors that represents
various instructions in symbolic code and a more understandable form.

Advantages of Assembly Language

Having an understanding of assembly language makes one aware of −
1. How programs interface with OS, processor, and BIOS;
2. How data is represented in memory and other external devices;
3. How the processor accesses and executes instruction;
4. How instructions access and process data;
5. How a program accesses external devices.

Other advantages of using assembly language are −

 1. It requires less memory and execution time;
2. It allows hardware-specific complex jobs in an easier way;
3. It is suitable for time-critical jobs;
4. It is most suitable for writing interrupt service routines and other
memory resident programs.

Basic Features of PC Hardware

The main internal hardware of a PC consists of processor, memory, and
registers. Registers are processor components that hold data and address. To
execute a program, the system copies it from the external device into the
internal memory. The processor executes the program instructions.
The fundamental unit of computer storage is a bit; it could be ON (1) or
OFF (0) and a group of 8 related bits makes a byte on most of the modern
computers.
So, the parity bit is used to make the number of bits in a byte odd. If the
parity is even, the system assumes that there had been a parity error (though
rare), which might have been caused due to hardware fault or electrical
disturbance.
The processor supports the following data sizes −
1. Word: a 2-byte data item
2. Doubleword: a 4-byte (32 bit) data item
3. Quadword: an 8-byte (64 bit) data item
4. Paragraph: a 16-byte (128 bit) area
5. Kilobyte: 1024 bytes
6. Megabyte: 1,048,576 bytes

Binary Number System

Every number system uses positional notation, i.e., each position in which a
digit is written has a different positional value. Each position is the power
of the base, which is 2 for the binary number system, and these powers
begin at 0 and increase by 1.
The following table shows the positional values for an 8-bit binary number,
where all bits are set ON.
Bit value 1 1 1 1 1111

Position value as a power of base 1 6 3 1 8421

2 2 4 2 6
8

Bit number 7 6 5 4 3210

The value of a binary number is based on the presence of 1 bits and their
positional value. So, the value of a given binary number is −
1 + 2 + 4 + 8 +16 + 32 + 64 + 128 = 255
which is the same as 28 - 1.

Hexadecimal Number System

Hexadecimal number system uses base 16. The digits in this system range
from 0 to 15. By convention, the letters A through F are used to represent
the hexadecimal digits corresponding to decimal values 10 through 15.
Hexadecimal numbers in computing are used for abbreviating lengthy
binary representations. Basically, a hexadecimal number system represents
binary data by dividing each byte in half and expressing the value of each
half-byte. The following table provides the decimal, binary, and
hexadecimal equivalents −

Decimal Binary Hexadecimal

number representation representation

0 0 0

1 1 1

2 10 2

3 11 3

4 100 4
 5 101 5

6 110 6

7 111 7

8 1000 8

9 1001 9

10 1010 A

11 1011 B

12 1100 C

13 1101 D

14 1110 E

15 1111 F

To convert a binary number to its hexadecimal equivalent, break it into

groups of 4 consecutive groups each, starting from the right, and write those
groups over the corresponding digits of the hexadecimal number.
Example − Binary number 1000 1100 1101 0001 is equivalent to
hexadecimal - 8CD1
To convert a hexadecimal number to binary, just write each hexadecimal
digit into its 4-digit binary equivalent.
Example − Hexadecimal number FAD8 is equivalent to binary - 1111 1010
1101 1000

Binary Arithmetic
The following table illustrates four simple rules for binary addition −
(i (ii (iii (iv
) ) ) )

0 1 1 1

+ + +1 +1
0 0

= = =1 =1
0 1 0 1

Rules (iii) and (iv) show a carry of a 1-bit into the next left position.
Example

Decima Binary
l

60 0011110
0

+42 0010101
0

102 0110011
0

A negative binary value is expressed in two's complement notation.

According to this rule, to convert a binary number to its negative value is to
reverse its bit values and add 1.
Example

Number 53 0011010
1
Reverse the 1100101
bits 0

Add 1 0000000
1

Number -53 1100101

1

To subtract one value from another, convert the number being subtracted to
two's complement format and add the numbers.
Example
Subtract 42 from 53

Number 53 0011010
1

Number 42 0010101
0

Reverse the bits of 1101010

42 1

Add 1 0000000
1

Number -42 1101011

0

53 - 42 = 11 0000101
1

Overflow of the last 1 bit is lost.

Addressing Data in Memory

The process through which the processor controls the execution of
instructions is referred to as the fetch-decode-execute cycle or the
execution cycle. It consists of three continuous steps −
1. Fetching the instruction from memory
2. Decoding or identifying the instruction
3. Executing the instruction

The processor may access one or more bytes of memory at a time. Let us
consider a hexadecimal number 0725H. This number will require two bytes
of memory. The high-order byte or most significant byte is 07 and the low-
order byte is 25.
The processor stores data in reverse-byte sequence, i.e., a low-order byte is
stored in a low memory address and a high-order byte in high memory
address. So, if the processor brings the value 0725H from register to
memory, it will transfer 25 first to the lower memory address and 07 to the
next memory address.

x: memory address
When the processor gets the numeric data from memory to register, it again
reverses the bytes. There are two kinds of memory addresses −
1. Absolute address - a direct reference of specific location.
2. Segment address (or offset) - starting address of a memory
segment with the offset value.

Assembly - Environment Setup

Local Environment Setup
Assembly language is dependent upon the instruction set and the
architecture of the processor. In this tutorial, we focus on Intel-32
processors like Pentium. To follow this tutorial, you will need −
1. An IBM PC or any equivalent compatible computer
2. A copy of Linux operating system
3. A copy of NASM assembler program

There are many good assembler programs, such as −

1. Microsoft Assembler (MASM)
2. Borland Turbo Assembler (TASM)
3. The GNU assembler (GAS)

We will use the NASM assembler, as it is −

1. Free. You can download it from various web sources.
2. Well documented and you will get lots of information on net.
3. Could be used on both Linux and Windows.

Installing NASM
If you select "Development Tools" while installing Linux, you may get
NASM installed along with the Linux operating system and you do not
need to download and install it separately. For checking whether you
already have NASM installed, take the following steps −
1. Open a Linux terminal.
2. Type whereis nasm and press ENTER.
3. If it is already installed, then a line like, nasm: /usr/bin/nasm
appears. Otherwise, you will see just nasm:, then you need to
install NASM.

To install NASM, take the following steps −

1. Check The netwide assembler (NASM) website for the latest
version.
2. Download the Linux source archive nasm-X.XX.ta.gz , where
X.XX is the NASM version number in the archive.
 3. Unpack the archive into a directory which creates a subdirectory
nasm-X. XX .
4. cd to nasm-X.XX and type ./configure. This shell script will
find the best C compiler to use and set up Makefiles accordingly.
5. Type make to build the nasm and ndisasm binaries.
6. Type make install to install nasm and ndisasm in /usr/local/bin
and to install the man pages.

This should install NASM on your system. Alternatively, you can use an
RPM distribution for the Fedora Linux. This version is simpler to install,
just double-click the RPM file.
Print Page

Assembly - Basic Syntax

An assembly program can be divided into three sections −
1. The data section,
2. The bss section, and
3. The text section.

The data Section

The data section is used for declaring initialized data or constants. This
data does not change at runtime. You can declare various constant values,
file names, or buffer size, etc., in this section.
The syntax for declaring data section is −
section.data

The bss Section

The bss section is used for declaring variables. The syntax for declaring bss
section is −
section.bss
The text section
The text section is used for keeping the actual code. This section must
begin with the declaration global _start, which tells the kernel where the
program execution begins.
The syntax for declaring text section is −
section.text
global _start
_start:

Comments
Assembly language comment begins with a semicolon (;). It may contain
any printable character including blank. It can appear on a line by itself, like
−
; This program displays a message on screen

or, on the same line along with an instruction, like −

add eax, ebx ; adds ebx to eax

Assembly Language Statements

Assembly language programs consist of three types of statements −
1. Executable instructions or instructions,
2. Assembler directives or pseudo-ops, and
3. Macros.

The executable instructions or simply instructions tell the processor what

to do. Each instruction consists of an operation code (opcode). Each
executable instruction generates one machine language instruction.
The assembler directives or pseudo-ops tell the assembler about the
various aspects of the assembly process. These are non-executable and do
not generate machine language instructions.
Macros are basically a text substitution mechanism.
Syntax of Assembly Language Statements
Assembly language statements are entered one statement per line. Each
statement follows the following format −
[label] mnemonic [operands] [;comment]

The fields in the square brackets are optional. A basic instruction has two
parts, the first one is the name of the instruction (or the mnemonic), which
is to be executed, and the second are the operands or the parameters of the
command.
Following are some examples of typical assembly language statements −
INC COUNT ; Increment the memory variable COUNT
MOV TOTAL, 48 ; Transfer the value 48 in the
; memory variable TOTAL
ADD AH, BH ; Add the content of the
; BH register into the AH register
AND MASK1, 128 ; Perform AND operation on the
; variable MASK1 and 128
ADD MARKS, 10 ; Add 10 to the variable MARKS
MOV AL, 10 ; Transfer the value 10 to the AL register

The Hello World Program in Assembly

The following assembly language code displays the string 'Hello World' on
the screen −
section ​.text
global _start ;must be declared for linker (ld)
_start:​ ;tells linker entry point
mov ​edx,len ;message length
mov ​ecx,msg ;message to write
mov ​ebx,1 ;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ​eax,4 ;system call number (sys_write)
 int ​0x80 ;call kernel
mov ​eax,1 ;system call number (sys_exit)
int ​0x80 ;call kernel
section ​.data
msg db 'Hello, world!', 0xa ;string to be printed
len equ $ - msg ;length of the string
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
Hello, world!

Compiling and Linking an Assembly Program in

NASM
Make sure you have set the path of nasm and ld binaries in your PATH
environment variable. Now, take the following steps for compiling and
linking the above program −
1. Type the above code using a text editor and save it as hello.asm.
2. Make sure that you are in the same directory as where you saved
hello.asm.
3. To assemble the program, type nasm -f elf hello.asm
4. If there is any error, you will be prompted about that at this stage.
Otherwise, an object file of your program named hello.o will be
created.
5. To link the object file and create an executable file named hello,
type ld -m elf_i386 -s -o hello hello.o
6. Execute the program by typing ./hello

If you have done everything correctly, it will display 'Hello, world!' on the
screen.

Assembly - Memory Segments

We have already discussed the three sections of an assembly program.
These sections represent various memory segments as well.
Interestingly, if you replace the section keyword with segment, you will get
the same result. Try the following code −
segment .text ​ ;code segment
global _start ;must be declared for linker
_start:​ ;tell linker entry point
mov edx,len ​ ;message length
mov ecx,msg ;message to write
mov ebx,1 ​ ;file descriptor (stdout)
mov eax,4 ​ ;system call number (sys_write)
int 0x80 ​ ;call kernel
mov eax,1 ;system call number (sys_exit)
int 0x80 ​ ;call kernel
segment .data ;data segment
msg ​db 'Hello, world!',0xa ;our dear string
len ​equ ​$ - msg ;length of our dear string
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
Hello, world!

Memory Segments
A segmented memory model divides the system memory into groups of
independent segments referenced by pointers located in the segment
registers. Each segment is used to contain a specific type of data. One
segment is used to contain instruction codes, another segment stores the
data elements, and a third segment keeps the program stack.
In the light of the above discussion, we can specify various memory
segments as −
1. Data segment − It is represented by .data section and the .bss.
The .data section is used to declare the memory region, where
 data elements are stored for the program. This section cannot be
expanded after the data elements are declared, and it remains
static throughout the program.
The .bss section is also a static memory section that contains
buffers for data to be declared later in the program. This buffer
memory is zero-filled.
2. Code segment − It is represented by .text section. This defines
an area in memory that stores the instruction codes. This is also a
fixed area.
3. Stack − This segment contains data values passed to functions
and procedures within the program.

Assembly - Registers
Processor operations mostly involve processing data. This data can be
stored in memory and accessed from thereon. However, reading data from
and storing data into memory slows down the processor, as it involves
complicated processes of sending the data request across the control bus
and into the memory storage unit and getting the data through the same
channel.
To speed up the processor operations, the processor includes some internal
memory storage locations, called registers.
The registers store data elements for processing without having to access
the memory. A limited number of registers are built into the processor chip.

Processor Registers
There are ten 32-bit and six 16-bit processor registers in IA-32 architecture.
The registers are grouped into three categories −
1. General registers,
2. Control registers, and
3. Segment registers.

The general registers are further divided into the following groups −
1. Data registers,
 2. Pointer registers, and
3. Index registers.

Data Registers
Four 32-bit data registers are used for arithmetic, logical, and other
operations. These 32-bit registers can be used in three ways −
1. As complete 32-bit data registers: EAX, EBX, ECX, EDX.
2. Lower halves of the 32-bit registers can be used as four 16-bit
data registers: AX, BX, CX and DX.
3. Lower and higher halves of the above-mentioned four 16-bit
registers can be used as eight 8-bit data registers: AH, AL, BH,
BL, CH, CL, DH, and DL.

Some of these data registers have specific use in arithmetical operations.

AX is the primary accumulator; it is used in input/output and most
arithmetic instructions. For example, in multiplication operation, one
operand is stored in EAX or AX or AL register according to the size of the
operand.
BX is known as the base register, as it could be used in indexed
addressing.
CX is known as the count register, as the ECX, CX registers store the
loop count in iterative operations.
DX is known as the data register. It is also used in input/output
operations. It is also used with AX register along with DX for multiply and
divide operations involving large values.
Pointer Registers
The pointer registers are 32-bit EIP, ESP, and EBP registers and
corresponding 16-bit right portions IP, SP, and BP. There are three
categories of pointer registers −
1. Instruction Pointer (IP) − The 16-bit IP register stores the offset
address of the next instruction to be executed. IP in association
with the CS register (as CS:IP) gives the complete address of the
current instruction in the code segment.
2. Stack Pointer (SP) − The 16-bit SP register provides the offset
value within the program stack. SP in association with the SS
register (SS:SP) refers to be current position of data or address
within the program stack.
3. Base Pointer (BP) − The 16-bit BP register mainly helps in
referencing the parameter variables passed to a subroutine. The
address in SS register is combined with the offset in BP to get the
location of the parameter. BP can also be combined with DI and
SI as base register for special addressing.

Index Registers
The 32-bit index registers, ESI and EDI, and their 16-bit rightmost portions.
SI and DI, are used for indexed addressing and sometimes used in addition
and subtraction. There are two sets of index pointers −
1. Source Index (SI) − It is used as source index for string
operations.
2. Destination Index (DI) − It is used as destination index for
string operations.
Control Registers
The 32-bit instruction pointer register and the 32-bit flags register combined
are considered as the control registers.
Many instructions involve comparisons and mathematical calculations and
change the status of the flags and some other conditional instructions test
the value of these status flags to take the control flow to other location.
The common flag bits are:
1. Overflow Flag (OF) − It indicates the overflow of a high-order
bit (leftmost bit) of data after a signed arithmetic operation.
2. Direction Flag (DF) − It determines left or right direction for
moving or comparing string data. When the DF value is 0, the
string operation takes left-to-right direction and when the value is
set to 1, the string operation takes right-to-left direction.
3. Interrupt Flag (IF) − It determines whether the external
interrupts like keyboard entry, etc., are to be ignored or
processed. It disables the external interrupt when the value is 0
and enables interrupts when set to 1.
4. Trap Flag (TF) − It allows setting the operation of the processor
in single-step mode. The DEBUG program we used sets the trap
flag, so we could step through the execution one instruction at a
time.
5. Sign Flag (SF) − It shows the sign of the result of an arithmetic
operation. This flag is set according to the sign of a data item
following the arithmetic operation. The sign is indicated by the
high-order of leftmost bit. A positive result clears the value of SF
to 0 and negative result sets it to 1.
6. Zero Flag (ZF) − It indicates the result of an arithmetic or
comparison operation. A nonzero result clears the zero flag to 0,
 and a zero result sets it to 1.
7. Auxiliary Carry Flag (AF) − It contains the carry from bit 3 to
bit 4 following an arithmetic operation; used for specialized
arithmetic. The AF is set when a 1-byte arithmetic operation
causes a carry from bit 3 into bit 4.
8. Parity Flag (PF) − It indicates the total number of 1-bits in the
result obtained from an arithmetic operation. An even number of
1-bits clears the parity flag to 0 and an odd number of 1-bits sets
the parity flag to 1.
9. Carry Flag (CF) − It contains the carry of 0 or 1 from a high-
order bit (leftmost) after an arithmetic operation. It also stores the
contents of last bit of a shift or rotate operation.

The following table indicates the position of flag bits in the 16-bit Flags
register:

Flag: O D I TSZ A P C

Bit 1 1 1 1 1 1 98 76 54 3210
no: 5 4 3 2 1 0

Segment Registers
Segments are specific areas defined in a program for containing data, code
and stack. There are three main segments −
1. Code Segment − It contains all the instructions to be executed. A
16-bit Code Segment register or CS register stores the starting
address of the code segment.
2. Data Segment − It contains data, constants and work areas. A
16-bit Data Segment register or DS register stores the starting
address of the data segment.
3. Stack Segment − It contains data and return addresses of
procedures or subroutines. It is implemented as a 'stack' data
structure. The Stack Segment register or SS register stores the
starting address of the stack.
Apart from the DS, CS and SS registers, there are other extra segment
registers - ES (extra segment), FS and GS, which provide additional
segments for storing data.
In assembly programming, a program needs to access the memory
locations. All memory locations within a segment are relative to the starting
address of the segment. A segment begins in an address evenly divisible by
16 or hexadecimal 10. So, the rightmost hex digit in all such memory
addresses is 0, which is not generally stored in the segment registers.
The segment registers stores the starting addresses of a segment. To get the
exact location of data or instruction within a segment, an offset value (or
displacement) is required. To reference any memory location in a segment,
the processor combines the segment address in the segment register with the
offset value of the location.

Example
Look at the following simple program to understand the use of registers in
assembly programming. This program displays 9 stars on the screen along
with a simple message −
section ​.text
global _start ​;must be declared for linker (gcc)
_start:​ ;tell linker entry point
mov ​edx,len ;message length
mov ​ecx,msg ;message to write
mov ​ebx,1 ;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ​eax,4 ;system call number (sys_write)
int ​0x80 ;call kernel
mov ​edx,9 ;message length
mov ​ecx,s2 ;message to write
mov ​ebx,1 ;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ​eax,4 ;system call number (sys_write)
int ​0x80 ;call kernel
mov ​eax,1 ;system call number (sys_exit)
int ​0x80 ;call kernel
section ​.data
msg db 'Displaying 9 stars',0xa ;a message
len equ $ - msg ;length of message
s2 times 9 db '*'
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
Displaying 9 stars
*********

Assembly - System Calls

System calls are APIs for the interface between the user space and the
kernel space. We have already used the system calls. sys_write and
sys_exit, for writing into the screen and exiting from the program,
respectively.

Linux System Calls

You can make use of Linux system calls in your assembly programs. You
need to take the following steps for using Linux system calls in your
program −
1. Put the system call number in the EAX register.
2. Store the arguments to the system call in the registers EBX,
ECX, etc.
3. Call the relevant interrupt (80h).
4. The result is usually returned in the EAX register.

There are six registers that store the arguments of the system call used.
These are the EBX, ECX, EDX, ESI, EDI, and EBP. These registers take
the consecutive arguments, starting with the EBX register. If there are more
than six arguments, then the memory location of the first argument is stored
in the EBX register.
The following code snippet shows the use of the system call sys_exit −
mov e​ ax,1 ​ ;​ system call number (sys_exit)
int ​0x80 ​ ​; call kernel
The following code snippet shows the use of the system call sys_write −
mov e​ dx,4 ​ ​; message length
mov ​ecx,msg ​ ​; message to write
mov ​ebx,1 ​ ​; file descriptor (stdout)
mov ​eax,4 ​ ​; system call number (sys_write)
int ​0x80 ​ ​; call kernel
All the syscalls are listed in /usr/include/asm/unistd.h, together with their
numbers (the value to put in EAX before you call int 80h).
The following table shows some of the system calls used in this tutorial −

%e Name %ebx %ecx %e %e %e

ax dx sx di

1 sys_exi int - - - -
t

2 sys_for struct - - - -
k pt_regs

3 sys_rea unsigned char * size - -

d int _t

4 sys_wr unsigned const char size - -

ite int * _t

5 sys_op const char int int - -

en *

6 sys_clo unsigned - - - -
se int

Example
The following example reads a number from the keyboard and displays it
on the screen −
section .data ;Data segment
userMsg db 'Please enter a number: ' ;Ask the user to enter a number
 lenUserMsg equ $-userMsg ;The length of the message
dispMsg db 'You have entered: '
lenDispMsg equ $-dispMsg
section .bss ;Uninitialized data
num resb 5
section .text ;Code Segment
global _start
_start: ;User prompt
mov eax, 4
mov ebx, 1
mov ecx, userMsg
mov edx, lenUserMsg
int 80h
;Read and store the user input
mov eax, 3
mov ebx, 2
mov ecx, num
mov edx, 5 ;5 bytes (numeric, 1 for sign) of that information
int 80h
;Output the message 'The entered number is: '
mov eax, 4
mov ebx, 1
mov ecx, dispMsg
mov edx, lenDispMsg
int 80h
;Output the number entered
mov eax, 4
mov ebx, 1
mov ecx, num
mov edx, 5
int 80h

; Exit code
mov eax, 1
mov ebx, 0
 int 80h
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
Please enter a number:
1234
You have entered:1234

Assembly - Addressing Modes

Most assembly language instructions require operands to be processed. An
operand address provides the location, where the data to be processed is
stored. Some instructions do not require an operand, whereas some other
instructions may require one, two, or three operands.
When an instruction requires two operands, the first operand is generally
the destination, which contains data in a register or memory location and
the second operand is the source. Source contains either the data to be
delivered (immediate addressing) or the address (in register or memory) of
the data. Generally, the source data remains unaltered after the operation.
The three basic modes of addressing are −
1. Register addressing
2. Immediate addressing
3. Memory addressing

Register Addressing
In this addressing mode, a register contains the operand. Depending upon
the instruction, the register may be the first operand, the second operand or
both.
For example,
MOV DX, TAX_RATE ; Register in first operand
MOV COUNT, CX ​ ; Register in second operand
MOV EAX, EBX ​ ; Both the operands are in registers
As processing data between registers does not involve memory, it provides
fastest processing of data.

Immediate Addressing
An immediate operand has a constant value or an expression. When an
instruction with two operands uses immediate addressing, the first operand
may be a register or memory location, and the second operand is an
immediate constant. The first operand defines the length of the data.
For example,
BYTE_VALUE DB 150 ; A byte value is defined
WORD_VALUE DW 300 ; A word value is defined
ADD BYTE_VALUE, 65 ; An immediate operand 65 is added
MOV AX, 45H ; Immediate constant 45H is transferred to AX

Direct Memory Addressing

When operands are specified in memory addressing mode, direct access to
main memory, usually to the data segment, is required. This way of
addressing results in slower processing of data. To locate the exact location
of data in memory, we need the segment start address, which is typically
found in the DS register and an offset value. This offset value is also called
effective address.
In direct addressing mode, the offset value is specified directly as part of the
instruction, usually indicated by the variable name. The assembler
calculates the offset value and maintains a symbol table, which stores the
offset values of all the variables used in the program.
In direct memory addressing, one of the operands refers to a memory
location and the other operand references a register.
For example,
ADD ​BYTE_VALUE, DL ​; Adds the register in the memory location
MOV ​BX, WORD_VALUE ​; Operand from the memory is added to
register
Direct-Offset Addressing
This addressing mode uses the arithmetic operators to modify an address.
For example, look at the following definitions that define tables of data −
BYTE_TABLE DB 14, 15, 22, 45 ; Tables of bytes
WORD_TABLE DW 134, 345, 564, 123 ; Tables of words
The following operations access data from the tables in the memory into
registers −
MOV CL, BYTE_TABLE[2] ​; Gets the 3rd element of the
BYTE_TABLE
MOV CL, BYTE_TABLE + 2 ​; Gets the 3rd element of the
BYTE_TABLE
MOV CX, WORD_TABLE[3] ​; Gets the 4th element of the
WORD_TABLE
MOV CX, WORD_TABLE + 3 ​; Gets the 4th element of the
WORD_TABLE

Indirect Memory Addressing

This addressing mode utilizes the computer's ability of Segment:Offset
addressing. Generally, the base registers EBX, EBP (or BX, BP) and the
index registers (DI, SI), coded within square brackets for memory
references, are used for this purpose.
Indirect addressing is generally used for variables containing several
elements like, arrays. Starting address of the array is stored in, say, the EBX
register.
The following code snippet shows how to access different elements of the
variable.
MY_TABLE TIMES 10 DW 0 ; Allocates 10 words (2 bytes) each
initialized to 0
MOV EBX, [MY_TABLE] ; Effective Address of MY_TABLE in EBX
MOV [EBX], 110 ; MY_TABLE[0] = 110
ADD EBX, 2 ; EBX = EBX +2
MOV [EBX], 123 ; MY_TABLE[1] = 123
The MOV Instruction
We have already used the MOV instruction that is used for moving data
from one storage space to another. The MOV instruction takes two
operands.

Syntax
The syntax of the MOV instruction is −
MOV destination, source

The MOV instruction may have one of the following five forms −
MOV register, register
MOV register, immediate
MOV memory, immediate
MOV register, memory
MOV memory, register
Please note that −
1. Both the operands in MOV operation should be of same size
2. The value of source operand remains unchanged

The MOV instruction causes ambiguity at times. For example, look at the
statements −
MOV EBX, [MY_TABLE] ; Effective Address of MY_TABLE in EBX
MOV [EBX], 110 ​ ; MY_TABLE[0] = 110
It is not clear whether you want to move a byte equivalent or word
equivalent of the number 110. In such cases, it is wise to use a type
specifier.
Following table shows some of the common type specifiers −

Type Bytes
Specifier addressed

BYTE 1
WORD 2

DWORD 4

QWORD 8

TBYTE 10

Example
The following program illustrates some of the concepts discussed above. It
stores a name 'Zara Ali' in the data section of the memory, then changes its
value to another name 'Nuha Ali' programmatically and displays both the
names.
section ​.text
global _start ;must be declared for linker (ld)
_start: ;tell linker entry point
;writing the name 'Zara Ali'
mov ​edx,9 ;message length
mov ​ecx, name ;message to write
mov ​ebx,1 ;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ​eax,4 ;system call number (sys_write)
int ​0x80 ;call kernel
mov ​[name], dword 'Nuha' ; Changed the name to Nuha Ali
;writing the name 'Nuha Ali'
mov ​edx,8 ;message length
mov ​ecx,name ;message to write
mov ​ebx,1 ;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ​eax,4 ;system call number (sys_write)
int ​0x80 ;call kernel
mov ​eax,1 ;system call number (sys_exit)
int ​0x80 ;call kernel
section ​.data
name db 'Zara Ali '
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
Zara Ali Nuha Ali

Assembly - Variables
NASM provides various define directives for reserving storage space for
variables. The define assembler directive is used for allocation of storage
space. It can be used to reserve as well as initialize one or more bytes.

Allocating Storage Space for Initialized Data

The syntax for storage allocation statement for initialized data is −
[variable-name] define-directive initial-value [,initial-value]...

Where, variable-name is the identifier for each storage space. The

assembler associates an offset value for each variable name defined in the
data segment.
There are five basic forms of the define directive −

Directi Purpose Storage Space

ve

DB Define Byte allocates 1 byte

DW Define Word allocates 2

bytes

DD Define allocates 4
Doubleword bytes

DQ Define Quadword allocates 8

bytes

DT Define Ten Bytes allocates 10

 bytes

Following are some examples of using define directives −

choice ​ ​DB 'y'
number ​ ​DW ​12345
neg_number ​DW ​-12345
big_number ​DQ ​123456789
real_number1 ​ D ​1.234
D
real_number2 ​DQ ​123.456
Please note that −
1. Each byte of character is stored as its ASCII value in
hexadecimal.
2. Each decimal value is automatically converted to its 16-bit binary
equivalent and stored as a hexadecimal number.
3. Processor uses the little-endian byte ordering.
4. Negative numbers are converted to its 2's complement
representation.
5. Short and long floating-point numbers are represented using 32
or 64 bits, respectively.

The following program shows the use of define directive −

section .text
global _start ;must be declared for linker (gcc)
_start: ;tell linker entry point
mov ​edx,1 ​ ​ ;message length
mov ​ecx,choice ;message to write
mov ​ebx,1 ​ ​ ;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ​eax,4 ​ ​ ;system call number (sys_write)
int ​0x80 ​ ​ ;call kernel
mov ​eax,1 ​ ​ ;system call number (sys_exit)
int ​0x80 ​ ​ ;call kernel
section .data
choice DB 'y'
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
y

Allocating Storage Space for Uninitialized Data

The reserve directives are used for reserving space for uninitialized data.
The reserve directives take a single operand that specifies the number of
units of space to be reserved. Each define directive has a related reserve
directive.
There are five basic forms of the reserve directive −

Directiv Purpose
e

RESB Reserve a Byte

RESW Reserve a Word

RESD Reserve a
Doubleword

RESQ Reserve a Quadword

REST Reserve a Ten Bytes

Multiple Definitions
You can have multiple data definition statements in a program. For example
−
choice ​ DB ​'Y' ​ ​;ASCII of y = 79H
number1 ​ DW ​12345 ​;12345D = 3039H
number2 DD 12345679 ;123456789D = 75BCD15H
The assembler allocates contiguous memory for multiple variable
definitions.
Multiple Initializations
The TIMES directive allows multiple initializations to the same value. For
example, an array named marks of size 9 can be defined and initialized to
zero using the following statement −
marks TIMES 9 DW 0

The TIMES directive is useful in defining arrays and tables. The following
program displays 9 asterisks on the screen −
Live Demo
section ​.text
global _start ;must be declared for linker (ld)
_start: ;tell linker entry point
mov ​edx,9 ​ ​;message length
mov ​ecx, stars ​;message to write
mov ​ebx,1 ​ ​;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ​eax,4 ​ ​;system call number (sys_write)
int ​0x80 ​ ​;call kernel
mov ​eax,1 ​ ;​system call number (sys_exit)
int ​0x80 ​ ​;call kernel
section ​.data
stars times 9 db '*'
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
*********

Assembly - Constants
There are several directives provided by NASM that define constants. We
have already used the EQU directive in previous chapters. We will
particularly discuss three directives −
1. EQU
 2. %assign
3. %define

The EQU Directive

The EQU directive is used for defining constants. The syntax of the EQU
directive is as follows −
CONSTANT_NAME EQU expression

For example,
TOTAL_STUDENTS equ 50

You can then use this constant value in your code, like −
mov ecx, TOTAL_STUDENTS
cmp eax, TOTAL_STUDENTS
The operand of an EQU statement can be an expression −
LENGTH equ 20
WIDTH equ 10
AREA equ length * width
Above code segment would define AREA as 200.

Example
The following example illustrates the use of the EQU directive −
SYS_EXIT equ 1
SYS_WRITE equ 4
STDIN equ 0
STDOUT equ 1
section ​.text
global _start ;must be declared for using gcc
_start: ;tell linker entry point
mov eax, SYS_WRITE
mov ebx, STDOUT
mov ecx, msg1
 mov edx, len1
int 0x80
mov eax, SYS_WRITE
mov ebx, STDOUT
mov ecx, msg2
mov edx, len2
int 0x80
mov eax, SYS_WRITE
mov ebx, STDOUT
mov ecx, msg3
mov edx, len3
int 0x80

mov eax,SYS_EXIT ;system call number (sys_exit)

int 0x80 ;call kernel
section ​.data
msg1 db 'Hello, programmers!',0xA,0xD
len1 equ $ - msg1 ​
msg2 db 'Welcome to the world of,', 0xA,0xD
len2 equ $ - msg2
msg3 db 'Linux assembly programming! '
len3 equ $- msg3
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
Hello, programmers!
Welcome to the world of,
Linux assembly programming!

The %assign Directive

The %assign directive can be used to define numeric constants like the
EQU directive. This directive allows redefinition. For example, you may
define the constant TOTAL as −
%assign TOTAL 10

Later in the code, you can redefine it as −

%assign TOTAL 20

This directive is case-sensitive.

The %define Directive

The %define directive allows defining both numeric and string constants.
This directive is similar to the #define in C. For example, you may define
the constant PTR as −
%define PTR [EBP+4]

The above code replaces PTR by [EBP+4].

This directive also allows redefinition and it is case-sensitive.

Assembly - Arithmetic Instructions

The INC Instruction
The INC instruction is used for incrementing an operand by one. It works
on a single operand that can be either in a register or in memory.

Syntax
The INC instruction has the following syntax −
INC destination

The operand destination could be an 8-bit, 16-bit or 32-bit operand.

Example
INC EBX ​ ; Increments 32-bit register
INC DL ; Increments 8-bit register
INC [count] ; Increments the count variable

The DEC Instruction

The DEC instruction is used for decrementing an operand by one. It works
on a single operand that can be either in a register or in memory.

Syntax
The DEC instruction has the following syntax −
DEC destination

The operand destination could be an 8-bit, 16-bit or 32-bit operand.

Example
segment .data
count dw 0
value db 15
segment .text
inc [count]
dec [value]
mov ebx, count
inc word [ebx]
mov esi, value
dec byte [esi]

The ADD and SUB Instructions

The ADD and SUB instructions are used for performing simple
addition/subtraction of binary data in byte, word and doubleword size, i.e.,
for adding or subtracting 8-bit, 16-bit or 32-bit operands, respectively.

Syntax
The ADD and SUB instructions have the following syntax −
ADD/SUB ​destination, source
The ADD/SUB instruction can take place between −
1. Register to register
2. Memory to register
3. Register to memory
4. Register to constant data
5. Memory to constant data

However, like other instructions, memory-to-memory operations are not

possible using ADD/SUB instructions. An ADD or SUB operation sets or
clears the overflow and carry flags.

Example
The following example will ask two digits from the user, store the digits in
the EAX and EBX register, respectively, add the values, store the result in a
memory location 'res' and finally display the result.
SYS_EXIT equ 1
SYS_READ equ 3
SYS_WRITE equ 4
STDIN equ 0
STDOUT equ 1
segment .data
msg1 db "Enter a digit ", 0xA,0xD
len1 equ $- msg1
msg2 db "Please enter a second digit", 0xA,0xD
len2 equ $- msg2
msg3 db "The sum is: "
len3 equ $- msg3
segment .bss
num1 resb 2
num2 resb 2
res resb 1
section ​.text
global _start ;must be declared for using gcc
_start: ;tell linker entry point
mov eax, SYS_WRITE
mov ebx, STDOUT
mov ecx, msg1
mov edx, len1
int 0x80
mov eax, SYS_READ
mov ebx, STDIN
mov ecx, num1
mov edx, 2
int 0x80
mov eax, SYS_WRITE
mov ebx, STDOUT
mov ecx, msg2
mov edx, len2
int 0x80
mov eax, SYS_READ
mov ebx, STDIN
mov ecx, num2
mov edx, 2
int 0x80
mov eax, SYS_WRITE
mov ebx, STDOUT
mov ecx, msg3
mov edx, len3
int 0x80
; moving the first number to eax register and second number to ebx
; and subtracting ascii '0' to convert it into a decimal number
mov eax, [num1]
sub eax, '0'
mov ebx, [num2]
sub ebx, '0'
 ; add eax and ebx
add eax, ebx
; add '0' to to convert the sum from decimal to ASCII
add eax, '0'
; storing the sum in memory location res
mov [res], eax
; print the sum
mov eax, SYS_WRITE
mov ebx, STDOUT
mov ecx, res
mov edx, 1
int 0x80
exit:

mov eax, SYS_EXIT

xor ebx, ebx
int 0x80
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
Enter a digit:
3
Please enter a second digit:
4
The sum is:
7

The program with hard coded variables −

section ​.text
global _start ;must be declared for using gcc
_start: ;tell linker entry point
mov ​eax,'3'
sub eax, '0'
mov ​ebx, '4'
sub ebx, '0'
 add ​eax, ebx
add ​eax, '0'
mov ​[sum], eax
mov ​ecx,msg
mov ​edx, len
mov ​ebx,1 ​;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ​eax,4 ​;system call number (sys_write)
int ​0x80 ​;call kernel
mov ​ecx,sum
mov ​edx, 1
mov ​ebx,1 ​;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ​eax,4 ​;system call number (sys_write)
int ​0x80 ​;call kernel
mov ​eax,1 ​;system call number (sys_exit)
int ​0x80 ​;call kernel
section .data
msg db "The sum is:", 0xA,0xD
len equ $ - msg
segment .bss
sum resb 1
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
The sum is:
7

The MUL/IMUL Instruction

There are two instructions for multiplying binary data. The MUL (Multiply)
instruction handles unsigned data and the IMUL (Integer Multiply) handles
signed data. Both instructions affect the Carry and Overflow flag.

Syntax
The syntax for the MUL/IMUL instructions is as follows −
MUL/IMUL multiplier
Multiplicand in both cases will be in an accumulator, depending upon the
size of the multiplicand and the multiplier and the generated product is also
stored in two registers depending upon the size of the operands. Following
section explains MUL instructions with three different cases −

Sr. Scenarios
No.

1 When two bytes are multiplied −

The multiplicand is in the AL register, and the multiplier is a byte
in the memory or in another register. The product is in AX. High-
order 8 bits of the product is stored in AH and the low-order 8 bits
are stored in AL.

2 When two one-word values are multiplied −

The multiplicand should be in the AX register, and the multiplier is
a word in memory or another register. For example, for an
instruction like MUL DX, you must store the multiplier in DX and
the multiplicand in AX.
The resultant product is a doubleword, which will need two
registers. The high-order (leftmost) portion gets stored in DX and
the lower-order (rightmost) portion gets stored in AX.

3 When two doubleword values are multiplied −

When two doubleword values are multiplied, the multiplicand
should be in EAX and the multiplier is a doubleword value stored
in memory or in another register. The product generated is stored
in the EDX:EAX registers, i.e., the high order 32 bits gets stored in
the EDX register and the low order 32-bits are stored in the EAX
register.
Example
MOV AL, 10
MOV DL, 25
MUL DL
...
MOV DL, 0FFH ;​ DL= -1
MOV AL, 0BEH ​; AL = -66
IMUL DL

Example
The following example multiplies 3 with 2, and displays the result −
section ​.text
global _start ;must be declared for using gcc
_start: ;tell linker entry point
mov ​al,'3'
sub al, '0'
mov ​bl, '2'
sub bl, '0'
mul ​bl
add ​al, '0'
mov ​[res], al
mov ​ecx,msg
mov ​edx, len
mov ​ebx,1 ​;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ​eax,4 ​;system call number (sys_write)
int ​0x80 ​;call kernel
mov ​ecx,res
mov ​edx, 1
mov ​ebx,1 ​;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ​eax,4 ​;system call number (sys_write)
int ​0x80 ​;call kernel
mov ​eax,1 ​;system call number (sys_exit)
int ​0x80 ​;call kernel
section .data
msg db "The result is:", 0xA,0xD
len equ $- msg
segment .bss
res resb 1
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
The result is:
6

The DIV/IDIV Instructions

The division operation generates two elements - a quotient and a
remainder. In case of multiplication, overflow does not occur because
double-length registers are used to keep the product. However, in case of
division, overflow may occur. The processor generates an interrupt if
overflow occurs.
The DIV (Divide) instruction is used for unsigned data and the IDIV
(Integer Divide) is used for signed data.

Syntax
The format for the DIV/IDIV instruction −
DIV/IDIV ​divisor

The dividend is in an accumulator. Both the instructions can work with 8-

bit, 16-bit or 32-bit operands. The operation affects all six status flags.
Following section explains three cases of division with different operand
size −

Sr. Scenarios
No.

1 When the divisor is 1 byte −

The dividend is assumed to be in the AX register (16 bits). After
division, the quotient goes to the AL register and the remainder
 goes to the AH register.

2 When the divisor is 1 word −

The dividend is assumed to be 32 bits long and in the DX:AX
registers. The high-order 16 bits are in DX and the low-order 16
bits are in AX. After division, the 16-bit quotient goes to the AX
register and the 16-bit remainder goes to the DX register.

3 When the divisor is doubleword −

The dividend is assumed to be 64 bits long and in the EDX:EAX
registers. The high-order 32 bits are in EDX and the low-order 32
bits are in EAX. After division, the 32-bit quotient goes to the
EAX register and the 32-bit remainder goes to the EDX register.

Example
The following example divides 8 with 2. The dividend 8 is stored in the 16-
bit AX register and the divisor 2 is stored in the 8-bit BL register.
section ​.text
global _start ;must be declared for using gcc
_start: ;tell linker entry point
mov ​ax,'8'
sub ax, '0'
mov ​bl, '2'
sub bl, '0'
div ​bl
add ​ax, '0'
mov ​[res], ax
mov ​ecx,msg
mov ​edx, len
mov ​ebx,1 ​;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ​eax,4 ​;system call number (sys_write)
int ​0x80 ​;call kernel
mov ​ecx,res
mov ​edx, 1
mov ​ebx,1 ​;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ​eax,4 ​;system call number (sys_write)
int ​0x80 ​;call kernel
mov ​eax,1 ​;system call number (sys_exit)
int ​0x80 ​;call kernel
section .data
msg db "The result is:", 0xA,0xD
len equ $- msg
segment .bss
res resb 1
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
The result is:
4

Assembly - Logical Instructions

The processor instruction set provides the instructions AND, OR, XOR,
TEST, and NOT Boolean logic, which tests, sets, and clears the bits
according to the need of the program.
The format for these instructions −

Sr.N Instructi Format

o. on

1 AND AND operand1,

operand2

2 OR OR operand1, operand2

3 XOR XOR operand1,

operand2

4 TEST TEST operand1,

operand2

5 NOT NOT operand1

The first operand in all the cases could be either in register or in memory.
The second operand could be either in register/memory or an immediate
(constant) value. However, memory-to-memory operations are not possible.
These instructions compare or match bits of the operands and set the CF,
OF, PF, SF and ZF flags.

The AND Instruction

The AND instruction is used for supporting logical expressions by
performing bitwise AND operation. The bitwise AND operation returns 1, if
the matching bits from both the operands are 1, otherwise it returns 0. For
example −
Operand1: 0101
Operand2: 0011
----------------------------
After AND -> Operand1: ​0001
The AND operation can be used for clearing one or more bits. For example,
say the BL register contains 0011 1010. If you need to clear the high-order
bits to zero, you AND it with 0FH.
AND ​BL, 0FH ; This sets BL to 0000 1010
Let's take up another example. If you want to check whether a given
number is odd or even, a simple test would be to check the least significant
bit of the number. If this is 1, the number is odd, else the number is even.
Assuming the number is in AL register, we can write −
AND ​AL, 01H ; ANDing with 0000 0001
JZ EVEN_NUMBER
The following program illustrates this −

Example
section .text
global _start ;must be declared for using gcc
_start: ;tell linker entry point
mov ax, 8h ;getting 8 in the ax
and ax, 1 ;and ax with 1
jz evnn
mov eax, 4 ;system call number (sys_write)
mov ebx, 1 ;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ecx, odd_msg ;message to write
mov edx, len2 ;length of message
int 0x80 ;call kernel
jmp outprog
evnn:

mov ah, 09h

mov eax, 4 ;system call number (sys_write)
mov ebx, 1 ;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ecx, even_msg ;message to write
mov edx, len1 ;length of message
int 0x80 ;call kernel
outprog:
mov eax,1 ;system call number (sys_exit)
int 0x80 ;call kernel
section .data
even_msg db 'Even Number!' ;message showing even number
len1 equ $ - even_msg

odd_msg db 'Odd Number!' ;message showing odd number

len2 equ $ - odd_msg
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
Even Number!

Change the value in the ax register with an odd digit, like −

mov ax, 9h ; getting 9 in the ax
The program would display:
Odd Number!

Similarly to clear the entire register you can AND it with 00H.

The OR Instruction
The OR instruction is used for supporting logical expression by performing
bitwise OR operation. The bitwise OR operator returns 1, if the matching
bits from either or both operands are one. It returns 0, if both the bits are
zero.
For example,
Operand1: 0101
Operand2: 0011
----------------------------
After OR -> Operand1: 0111
The OR operation can be used for setting one or more bits. For example, let
us assume the AL register contains 0011 1010, you need to set the four low-
order bits, you can OR it with a value 0000 1111, i.e., FH.
OR BL, 0FH ; This sets BL to 0011 1111

Example
The following example demonstrates the OR instruction. Let us store the
value 5 and 3 in the AL and the BL registers, respectively, then the
instruction,
OR AL, BL
should store 7 in the AL register −
section .text
global _start ;must be declared for using gcc
_start: ;tell linker entry point
mov al, 5 ;getting 5 in the al
mov bl, 3 ;getting 3 in the bl
or al, bl ;or al and bl registers, result should be 7
add al, byte '0' ;converting decimal to ascii
mov [result], al
mov eax, 4
mov ebx, 1
mov ecx, result
mov edx, 1
int 0x80

outprog:
mov eax,1 ;system call number (sys_exit)
int 0x80 ;call kernel
section .bss
result resb 1
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
7
The XOR Instruction
The XOR instruction implements the bitwise XOR operation. The XOR
operation sets the resultant bit to 1, if and only if the bits from the operands
are different. If the bits from the operands are same (both 0 or both 1), the
resultant bit is cleared to 0.
For example,
Operand1: 0101
Operand2: 0011
----------------------------
After XOR -> Operand1: 0110

XORing an operand with itself changes the operand to 0. This is used to

clear a register.
XOR EAX, EAX

The TEST Instruction

The TEST instruction works same as the AND operation, but unlike AND
instruction, it does not change the first operand. So, if we need to check
whether a number in a register is even or odd, we can also do this using the
TEST instruction without changing the original number.
TEST AL, 01H
JZ EVEN_NUMBER

The NOT Instruction

The NOT instruction implements the bitwise NOT operation. NOT
operation reverses the bits in an operand. The operand could be either in a
register or in the memory.
For example,
Operand1: 0101 0011
After NOT -> Operand1: 1010 1100
 Assembly - Conditions
Conditional execution in assembly language is accomplished by several
looping and branching instructions. These instructions can change the flow
of control in a program. Conditional execution is observed in two scenarios
−

Sr. Conditional Instructions

No.

1 Unconditional jump
This is performed by the JMP instruction. Conditional execution
often involves a transfer of control to the address of an instruction
that does not follow the currently executing instruction. Transfer of
control may be forward, to execute a new set of instructions or
backward, to re-execute the same steps.

2 Conditional jump
This is performed by a set of jump instructions j<condition>
depending upon the condition. The conditional instructions transfer
the control by breaking the sequential flow and they do it by
changing the offset value in IP.

Let us discuss the CMP instruction before discussing the conditional

instructions.

CMP Instruction
The CMP instruction compares two operands. It is generally used in
conditional execution. This instruction basically subtracts one operand from
the other for comparing whether the operands are equal or not. It does not
disturb the destination or source operands. It is used along with the
conditional jump instruction for decision making.

Syntax
CMP destination, source
CMP compares two numeric data fields. The destination operand could be
either in register or in memory. The source operand could be a constant
(immediate) data, register or memory.

Example
CMP DX, ​00 ; Compare the DX value with zero
JE L7 ; If yes, then jump to label L7
.
.
L7: ...
CMP is often used for comparing whether a counter value has reached the
number of times a loop needs to be run. Consider the following typical
condition −
INC E
​ DX
CMP ​EDX, 10 ; Compares whether the counter has reached 10
JLE ​LP1 ; If it is less than or equal to 10, then jump to LP1

Unconditional Jump
As mentioned earlier, this is performed by the JMP instruction. Conditional
execution often involves a transfer of control to the address of an
instruction that does not follow the currently executing instruction. Transfer
of control may be forward, to execute a new set of instructions or backward,
to re-execute the same steps.

Syntax
The JMP instruction provides a label name where the flow of control is
transferred immediately. The syntax of the JMP instruction is −
JMP ​label

Example
The following code snippet illustrates the JMP instruction −
MOV AX, 00 ; Initializing AX to 0
MOV BX, 00 ; Initializing BX to 0
MOV CX, 01 ; Initializing CX to 1
L20:
ADD AX, 01 ; Increment AX
ADD BX, AX ; Add AX to BX
SHL CX, 1 ; shift left CX, this in turn doubles the CX value
JMP L20 ; repeats the statements

Conditional Jump
If some specified condition is satisfied in conditional jump, the control flow
is transferred to a target instruction. There are numerous conditional jump
instructions depending upon the condition and data.
Following are the conditional jump instructions used on signed data used
for arithmetic operations −

Instructi Description Flags

on tested

JE/JZ Jump Equal or Jump Zero ZF

JNE/JNZ Jump not Equal or Jump Not Zero ZF

JG/JNLE Jump Greater or Jump Not OF, SF,

Less/Equal ZF

JGE/JNL Jump Greater/Equal or Jump Not OF, SF

Less

JL/JNGE Jump Less or Jump Not OF, SF

Greater/Equal

JLE/JNG Jump Less/Equal or Jump Not OF, SF,

Greater ZF

Following are the conditional jump instructions used on unsigned data used
for logical operations −
 Instructi Description Flags
on tested

JE/JZ Jump Equal or Jump Zero ZF

JNE/JNZ Jump not Equal or Jump Not Zero ZF

JA/JNBE Jump Above or Jump Not CF, ZF

Below/Equal

JAE/JNB Jump Above/Equal or Jump Not CF

Below

JB/JNAE Jump Below or Jump Not CF

Above/Equal

JBE/JNA Jump Below/Equal or Jump Not AF, CF

Above

The following conditional jump instructions have special uses and check
the value of flags −

Instructi Description Flags

on tested

JXCZ Jump if CX is Zero none

JC Jump If Carry CF

JNC Jump If No Carry CF

JO Jump If Overflow OF

JNO Jump If No Overflow OF

JP/JPE Jump Parity or Jump Parity Even PF

 JNP/JPO Jump No Parity or Jump Parity PF
Odd

JS Jump Sign (negative value) SF

JNS Jump No Sign (positive value) SF

The syntax for the J<condition> set of instructions −

Example,
CMP ​AL, BL
JE ​EQUAL
CMP ​AL, BH
JE ​EQUAL
CMP ​AL, CL
JE ​EQUAL
NON_EQUAL: ...
EQUAL: ...

Example
The following program displays the largest of three variables. The variables
are double-digit variables. The three variables num1, num2 and num3 have
values 47, 22 and 31, respectively −
section ​.text
global _start ;must be declared for using gcc
_start:​ ;tell linker entry point
mov ecx, [num1]
cmp ecx, [num2]
jg check_third_num
mov ecx, [num2]

​check_third_num:
cmp ecx, [num3]
jg _exit
 mov ecx, [num3]

​_exit:

mov [largest], ecx

mov ecx,msg
mov edx, len
mov ebx,1 ​;file descriptor (stdout)
mov eax,4 ​;system call number (sys_write)
int 0x80 ​;call kernel
mov ecx,largest
mov edx, 2
mov ebx,1 ​;file descriptor (stdout)
mov eax,4 ​;system call number (sys_write)
int 0x80 ​;call kernel

mov eax, 1
int 80h
section ​.data

msg db "The largest digit is: ", 0xA,0xD

len equ $- msg
num1 dd '47'
num2 dd '22'
num3 dd '31'
segment .bss
largest resb 2
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
The largest digit is:
47

Assembly - Loops
The JMP instruction can be used for implementing loops. For example, the
following code snippet can be used for executing the loop-body 10 times.
MOV ​CL, 10
L1:
<LOOP-BODY>
DEC ​CL
JNZ ​L1
The processor instruction set, however, includes a group of loop
instructions for implementing iteration. The basic LOOP instruction has the
following syntax −
LOOP ​label

Where, label is the target label that identifies the target instruction as in the
jump instructions. The LOOP instruction assumes that the ECX register
contains the loop count. When the loop instruction is executed, the ECX
register is decremented and the control jumps to the target label, until the
ECX register value, i.e., the counter reaches the value zero.
The above code snippet could be written as −
mov ECX,10
l1:
<loop body>
loop l1

Example
The following program prints the number 1 to 9 on the screen −
section ​.text
global _start ;must be declared for using gcc
_start:​ ;tell linker entry point
mov ecx,10
mov eax, '1'
l1:
mov [num], eax
mov eax, 4
 mov ebx, 1
push ecx
mov ecx, num
mov edx, 1
int 0x80
mov eax, [num]
sub eax, '0'
inc eax
add eax, '0'
pop ecx
loop l1
mov eax,1 ;system call number (sys_exit)
int 0x80 ;call kernel
section ​.bss
num resb 1
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
123456789:

Assembly - Numbers
Numerical data is generally represented in binary system. Arithmetic
instructions operate on binary data. When numbers are displayed on screen
or entered from keyboard, they are in ASCII form.
So far, we have converted this input data in ASCII form to binary for
arithmetic calculations and converted the result back to binary. The
following code shows this −
section ​.text
global _start ;must be declared for using gcc
_start:​ ;tell linker entry point
mov ​eax,'3'
sub eax, '0'
mov ​ebx, '4'
 sub ebx, '0'
add ​eax, ebx
add ​eax, '0'
mov ​[sum], eax
mov ​ecx,msg
mov ​edx, len
mov ​ebx,1 ​ ;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ​eax,4 ​ ;system call number (sys_write)
int ​0x80 ​ ;call kernel
mov ​ecx,sum
mov ​edx, 1
mov ​ebx,1 ​ ;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ​eax,4 ​ ;system call number (sys_write)
int ​0x80 ​ ;call kernel
mov ​eax,1 ​ ;system call number (sys_exit)
int ​0x80 ​ ;call kernel
section .data
msg db "The sum is:", 0xA,0xD
len equ $ - msg
segment .bss
sum resb 1
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
The sum is:
7

Such conversions, however, have an overhead, and assembly language

programming allows processing numbers in a more efficient way, in the
binary form. Decimal numbers can be represented in two forms −
1. ASCII form
2. BCD or Binary Coded Decimal form

ASCII Representation
In ASCII representation, decimal numbers are stored as string of ASCII
characters. For example, the decimal value 1234 is stored as −
31 ​32 ​33 ​34H
Where, 31H is ASCII value for 1, 32H is ASCII value for 2, and so on.
There are four instructions for processing numbers in ASCII representation
−
1. AAA − ASCII Adjust After Addition
2. AAS − ASCII Adjust After Subtraction
3. AAM − ASCII Adjust After Multiplication
4. AAD − ASCII Adjust Before Division

These instructions do not take any operands and assume the required
operand to be in the AL register.
The following example uses the AAS instruction to demonstrate the concept
−
section ​.text
global _start ;must be declared for using gcc
_start:​ ;tell linker entry point
sub ah, ah
mov al, '9'
sub al, '3'
aas
or al, 30h
mov [res], ax
mov ​edx,len ​ ;message length
mov ​ecx,msg ​ ;message to write
mov ​ebx,1 ​ ;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ​eax,4 ​ ;system call number (sys_write)
int ​0x80 ​ ;call kernel
mov ​edx,1 ​ ;message length
mov ​ecx,res ​ ;message to write
mov ​ebx,1 ​ ;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ​eax,4 ​ ;system call number (sys_write)
int ​0x80 ​ ;call kernel
mov ​eax,1 ​ ;system call number (sys_exit)
int ​0x80 ​ ;call kernel
section ​.data
msg db 'The Result is:',0xa
len equ $ - msg ​
section .bss
res resb 1
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
The Result is:
6

BCD Representation
There are two types of BCD representation −
1. Unpacked BCD representation
2. Packed BCD representation

In unpacked BCD representation, each byte stores the binary equivalent of a

decimal digit. For example, the number 1234 is stored as −
01 ​02 ​03 ​04H
There are two instructions for processing these numbers −
1. AAM − ASCII Adjust After Multiplication
2. AAD − ASCII Adjust Before Division

The four ASCII adjust instructions, AAA, AAS, AAM, and AAD, can also
be used with unpacked BCD representation. In packed BCD representation,
each digit is stored using four bits. Two decimal digits are packed into a
byte. For example, the number 1234 is stored as −
12 ​34H
There are two instructions for processing these numbers −
1. DAA − Decimal Adjust After Addition
2. DAS − decimal Adjust After Subtraction

There is no support for multiplication and division in packed BCD

representation.
Example
The following program adds up two 5-digit decimal numbers and displays
the sum. It uses the above concepts −
section ​.text
global _start ;must be declared for using gcc
_start:​ ;tell linker entry point
mov esi, 4 ;pointing to the rightmost digit
mov ecx, 5 ;num of digits
clc
add_loop:
mov ​al, [num1 + esi]
adc ​al, [num2 + esi]
aaa
pushf
or ​al, 30h
popf
mov ​[sum + esi], al
dec ​esi
loop ​add_loop
mov ​edx,len ​ ;message length
mov ​ecx,msg ​ ;message to write
mov ​ebx,1 ​ ;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ​eax,4 ​ ;system call number (sys_write)
int ​0x80 ​ ;call kernel
mov ​edx,5 ​ ;message length
mov ​ecx,sum ​ ;message to write
mov ​ebx,1 ​ ;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ​eax,4 ​ ;system call number (sys_write)
int ​0x80 ​ ;call kernel
mov ​eax,1 ​ ;system call number (sys_exit)
int ​0x80 ​ ;call kernel
section ​.data
msg db 'The Sum is:',0xa
len equ $ - msg ​
num1 db '12345'
num2 db '23456'
sum db ' '
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
The Sum is:
35801

Assembly - Strings
We have already used variable length strings in our previous examples. The
variable length strings can have as many characters as required. Generally,
we specify the length of the string by either of the two ways −
1. Explicitly storing string length
2. Using a sentinel character

We can store the string length explicitly by using the $ location counter
symbol that represents the current value of the location counter. In the
following example −
msg db 'Hello, world!',0xa ;our dear string
len equ $ - msg ;length of our dear string
$ points to the byte after the last character of the string variable msg.
Therefore, $-msg gives the length of the string. We can also write
msg db 'Hello, world!',0xa ;our dear string
len equ 13 ;length of our dear string
Alternatively, you can store strings with a trailing sentinel character to
delimit a string instead of storing the string length explicitly. The sentinel
character should be a special character that does not appear within a string.
For example −
message DB 'I am loving it!', 0
String Instructions
Each string instruction may require a source operand, a destination operand
or both. For 32-bit segments, string instructions use ESI and EDI registers
to point to the source and destination operands, respectively.
For 16-bit segments, however, the SI and the DI registers are used to point
to the source and destination, respectively.
There are five basic instructions for processing strings. They are −
1. MOVS − This instruction moves 1 Byte, Word or Doubleword of
data from memory location to another.
2. LODS − This instruction loads from memory. If the operand is of
one byte, it is loaded into the AL register, if the operand is one
word, it is loaded into the AX register and a doubleword is
loaded into the EAX register.
3. STOS − This instruction stores data from register (AL, AX, or
EAX) to memory.
4. CMPS − This instruction compares two data items in memory.
Data could be of a byte size, word or doubleword.
5. SCAS − This instruction compares the contents of a register (AL,
AX or EAX) with the contents of an item in memory.

Each of the above instruction has a byte, word, and doubleword version,
and string instructions can be repeated by using a repetition prefix.
These instructions use the ES:DI and DS:SI pair of registers, where DI and
SI registers contain valid offset addresses that refer to bytes stored in
memory. SI is normally associated with DS (data segment) and DI is always
associated with ES (extra segment).
The DS:SI (or ESI) and ES:DI (or EDI) registers point to the source and
destination operands, respectively. The source operand is assumed to be at
DS:SI (or ESI) and the destination operand at ES:DI (or EDI) in memory.
For 16-bit addresses, the SI and DI registers are used, and for 32-bit
addresses, the ESI and EDI registers are used.
The following table provides various versions of string instructions and the
assumed space of the operands.
 Basic Operand Byte Word Double word
Instruction s at Operation Operation Operation

MOVS ES:DI, MOVSB MOVSW MOVSD

DS:SI

LODS AX, LODSB LODSW LODSD

DS:SI

STOS ES:DI, STOSB STOSW STOSD

AX

CMPS DS:SI, CMPSB CMPSW CMPSD

ES: DI

SCAS ES:DI, SCASB SCASW SCASD

AX

Repetition Prefixes
The REP prefix, when set before a string instruction, for example - REP
MOVSB, causes repetition of the instruction based on a counter placed at
the CX register. REP executes the instruction, decreases CX by 1, and
checks whether CX is zero. It repeats the instruction processing until CX is
zero.
The Direction Flag (DF) determines the direction of the operation.
1. Use CLD (Clear Direction Flag, DF = 0) to make the operation
left to right.
2. Use STD (Set Direction Flag, DF = 1) to make the operation
right to left.

The REP prefix also has the following variations:

1. REP: It is the unconditional repeat. It repeats the operation until
CX is zero.
2. REPE or REPZ: It is conditional repeat. It repeats the operation
while the zero flag indicates equal/zero. It stops when the ZF
 indicates not equal/zero or when CX is zero.
3. REPNE or REPNZ: It is also conditional repeat. It repeats the
operation while the zero flag indicates not equal/zero. It stops
when the ZF indicates equal/zero or when CX is decremented to
zero.

Assembly - Arrays
We have already discussed that the data definition directives to the
assembler are used for allocating storage for variables. The variable could
also be initialized with some specific value. The initialized value could be
specified in hexadecimal, decimal or binary form.
For example, we can define a word variable 'months' in either of the
following way −
MONTHS ​ W
D ​2
1
MONTHS ​DW ​0CH
MONTHS ​DW ​0110B
The data definition directives can also be used for defining a one-
dimensional array. Let us define a one-dimensional array of numbers.
NUMBERS ​DW 34, 45, 56, 67, 75, 89
The above definition declares an array of six words each initialized with the
numbers 34, 45, 56, 67, 75, 89. This allocates 2x6 = 12 bytes of consecutive
memory space. The symbolic address of the first number will be
NUMBERS and that of the second number will be NUMBERS + 2 and so
on.
Let us take up another example. You can define an array named inventory
of size 8, and initialize all the values with zero, as −
INVENTORY DW 0
DW 0
DW 0
DW 0
DW 0
DW 0
 DW 0
DW 0
Which can be abbreviated as −
INVENTORY DW 0, 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0
The TIMES directive can also be used for multiple initializations to the
same value. Using TIMES, the INVENTORY array can be defined as:
INVENTORY TIMES 8 DW 0

Example
The following example demonstrates the above concepts by defining a 3-
element array x, which stores three values: 2, 3 and 4. It adds the values in
the array and displays the sum 9 −
section ​.text
global _start ;must be declared for linker (ld)
_start:
​
mov eax,3 ;number bytes to be summed
mov ebx,0 ;EBX will store the sum
mov ecx, x ;ECX will point to the current element to be summed
top: add ebx, [ecx]
add ecx,1 ;move pointer to next element
dec eax ;decrement counter
jnz top ;if counter not 0, then loop again
done:
add ebx, '0'
mov [sum], ebx ;done, store result in "sum"
display:
mov edx,1 ;message length
mov ecx, sum ;message to write
mov ebx, 1 ;file descriptor (stdout)
 mov eax, 4 ;system call number (sys_write)
int 0x80 ;call kernel
mov eax, 1 ;system call number (sys_exit)
int 0x80 ;call kernel
section ​.data
global x
x:
db 2
db 4
db 3
sum:
db 0
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
9

Assembly - Procedures
Procedures or subroutines are very important in assembly language, as the
assembly language programs tend to be large in size. Procedures are
identified by a name. Following this name, the body of the procedure is
described which performs a well-defined job. End of the procedure is
indicated by a return statement.

Syntax
Following is the syntax to define a procedure −
proc_name:
procedure body
...
ret
The procedure is called from another function by using the CALL
instruction. The CALL instruction should have the name of the called
procedure as an argument as shown below −
CALL proc_name

The called procedure returns the control to the calling procedure by using
the RET instruction.

Example
Let us write a very simple procedure named sum that adds the variables
stored in the ECX and EDX register and returns the sum in the EAX
register −
section ​.text
global _start ;must be declared for using gcc
_start:​ ;tell linker entry point
mov ​ecx,'4'
sub ecx, '0'
mov ​edx, '5'
sub edx, '0'
call sum ;call sum procedure
mov ​[res], eax
mov ​ecx, msg
mov ​edx, len
mov ​ebx,1 ​ ;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ​eax,4 ​ ;system call number (sys_write)
int ​0x80 ​ ;call kernel
mov ​ecx, res
mov ​edx, 1
mov ​ebx, 1 ​ ;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ​eax, 4 ​ ;system call number (sys_write)
int ​0x80 ​ ;call kernel
mov ​eax,1 ​ ;system call number (sys_exit)
int ​0x80 ​ ;call kernel
sum:
mov eax, ecx
add eax, edx
add eax, '0'
 ret
section .data
msg db "The sum is:", 0xA,0xD
len equ $- msg
segment .bss
res resb 1
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
The sum is:
9

Stacks Data Structure

A stack is an array-like data structure in the memory in which data can be
stored and removed from a location called the 'top' of the stack. The data
that needs to be stored is 'pushed' into the stack and data to be retrieved is
'popped' out from the stack. Stack is a LIFO data structure, i.e., the data
stored first is retrieved last.
Assembly language provides two instructions for stack operations: PUSH
and POP. These instructions have syntaxes like −
PUSH operand
POP address/register

The memory space reserved in the stack segment is used for implementing
stack. The registers SS and ESP (or SP) are used for implementing the
stack. The top of the stack, which points to the last data item inserted into
the stack is pointed to by the SS:ESP register, where the SS register points
to the beginning of the stack segment and the SP (or ESP) gives the offset
into the stack segment.
The stack implementation has the following characteristics −
1. Only words or doublewords could be saved into the stack, not a
byte.
 2. The stack grows in the reverse direction, i.e., toward the lower
memory address
3. The top of the stack points to the last item inserted in the stack; it
points to the lower byte of the last word inserted.

As we discussed about storing the values of the registers in the stack before
using them for some use; it can be done in following way −
; Save the AX and BX registers in the stack
PUSH AX
PUSH BX
; Use the registers for other purpose
MOV ​AX, VALUE1
MOV ​BX, VALUE2
...
MOV ​VALUE1, AX
MOV ​VALUE2, BX
; Restore the original values
POP ​BX
POP ​AX

Example
The following program displays the entire ASCII character set. The main
program calls a procedure named display, which displays the ASCII
character set.
section ​.text
global _start ;must be declared for using gcc
_start:​ ;tell linker entry point
call display
mov ​eax,1 ​ ;system call number (sys_exit)
int ​0x80 ​ ;call kernel
display:
mov ecx, 256
next:
push ecx
 mov eax, 4
mov ebx, 1
mov ecx, achar
mov edx, 1
int 80h
pop ecx
mov ​dx, [achar]
cmp ​byte [achar], 0dh
inc ​byte [achar]
loop next
ret
section .data
achar db '0'
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
0123456789:;<=>?
@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdefghijklmnopqrstuv
wxyz{|}
...
...

Assembly - Recursion
A recursive procedure is one that calls itself. There are two kinds of
recursion: direct and indirect. In direct recursion, the procedure calls itself
and in indirect recursion, the first procedure calls a second procedure,
which in turn calls the first procedure.
Recursion could be observed in numerous mathematical algorithms. For
example, consider the case of calculating the factorial of a number.
Factorial of a number is given by the equation −
Fact (n) = n * fact (n-1) for n > 0
For example: factorial of 5 is 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 = 5 x factorial of 4 and this
can be a good example of showing a recursive procedure. Every recursive
algorithm must have an ending condition, i.e., the recursive calling of the
program should be stopped when a condition is fulfilled. In the case of a
factorial algorithm, the end condition is reached when n is 0.
The following program shows how factorial n is implemented in assembly
language. To keep the program simple, we will calculate factorial 3.
section ​.text
global _start ;must be declared for using gcc
_start: ;tell linker entry point
mov bx, 3 ;for calculating factorial 3
call proc_fact
add ax, 30h
mov [fact], ax

mov ​ edx,len ;message length

mov ​ ecx,msg ;message to write
mov ​ ebx,1 ;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ​ eax,4 ;system call number (sys_write)
int ​ 0x80 ;call kernel
mov edx,1 ;message length
mov ​ ecx,fact ;message to write
mov ​ ebx,1 ;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ​ eax,4 ;system call number (sys_write)
int ​ 0x80 ;call kernel

mov ​ eax,1 ;system call number (sys_exit)

int ​ 0x80 ;call kernel
proc_fact:
cmp bl, 1
jg do_calculation
mov ax, 1
ret
do_calculation:
dec bl
call proc_fact
inc bl
mul bl ;ax = al * bl
 ret
section ​.data
msg db 'Factorial 3 is:',0xa
len equ $ - msg ​
section .bss
fact resb 1
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
Factorial 3 is:
6
Print Page

Assembly - Macros
Writing a macro is another way of ensuring modular programming in
assembly language.
1. A macro is a sequence of instructions, assigned by a name and
could be used anywhere in the program.
2. In NASM, macros are defined with %macro and %endmacro
directives.
3. The macro begins with the %macro directive and ends with the
%endmacro directive.

The Syntax for macro definition −

%macro macro_name number_of_params
<macro body>
%endmacro

Where, number_of_params specifies the number parameters, macro_name

specifies the name of the macro.
The macro is invoked by using the macro name along with the necessary
parameters. When you need to use some sequence of instructions many
times in a program, you can put those instructions in a macro and use it
instead of writing the instructions all the time.
For example, a very common need for programs is to write a string of
characters on the screen. For displaying a string of characters, you need the
following sequence of instructions −
mov e​ dx,len ​ ;message length
mov ​ecx,msg ​ ;message to write
mov ​ebx,1 ;file descriptor (stdout)
mov ​eax,4 ;system call number (sys_write)
int ​0x80 ;call kernel
In the above example of displaying a character string, the registers EAX,
EBX, ECX and EDX have been used by the INT 80H function call. So,
each time you need to display on screen, you need to save these registers on
the stack, invoke INT 80H and then restore the original value of the
registers from the stack. So, it could be useful to write two macros for
saving and restoring data.
We have observed that some instructions like IMUL, IDIV, INT, etc., need
some of the information to be stored in some particular registers and even
return values in some specific register(s). If the program was already using
those registers for keeping important data, then the existing data from these
registers should be saved in the stack and restored after the instruction is
executed.

Example
Following example shows defining and using macros −
; A macro with two parameters
; Implements the write system call
%macro write_string 2
mov eax, 4
mov ebx, 1
mov ecx, %1
mov edx, %2
int 80h
%endmacro
section ​.text
global _start ;must be declared for using gcc
_start: ;tell linker entry point
write_string msg1, len1
write_string msg2, len2
write_string msg3, len3
mov eax,1 ;system call number (sys_exit)
int 0x80 ;call kernel
section ​.data
msg1 db 'Hello, programmers!',0xA,0xD
len1 equ $ - msg1 ​
msg2 db 'Welcome to the world of,', 0xA,0xD
len2 equ $- msg2
msg3 db 'Linux assembly programming! '
len3 equ $- msg3
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
Hello, programmers!
Welcome to the world of,
Linux assembly programming!

Assembly - File Management

The system considers any input or output data as a stream of bytes. There
are three standard file streams −
1. Standard input (stdin),
2. Standard output (stdout), and
3. Standard error (stderr).

File Descriptor
A file descriptor is a 16-bit integer assigned to a file as a file id. When a
new file is created or an existing file is opened, the file descriptor is used
for accessing the file.
File descriptors of the standard file streams - stdin, stdout and stderr are 0,
1 and 2, respectively.

File Pointer
A file pointer specifies the location for a subsequent read/write operation in
the file in terms of bytes. Each file is considered as a sequence of bytes.
Each open file is associated with a file pointer that specifies an offset in
bytes, relative to the beginning of the file. When a file is opened, the file
pointer is set to zero.

File Handling System Calls

The following table briefly describes the system calls related to file
handling −

%e Name %ebx %ecx %edx

ax

2 sys_for struct - -
k pt_regs

3 sys_rea unsigned char * size_t

d int

4 sys_wri unsigned const char size_t

te int *

5 sys_op const char int int

en *

6 sys_clo unsigned - -
se int
8 sys_cre const char int -
at *

19 sys_lse unsigned off_t unsigned

ek int int

The steps required for using the system calls are same, as we discussed
earlier −
1. Put the system call number in the EAX register.
2. Store the arguments to the system call in the registers EBX,
ECX, etc.
3. Call the relevant interrupt (80h).
4. The result is usually returned in the EAX register.

Creating and Opening a File

For creating and opening a file, perform the following tasks −
1. Put the system call sys_creat() number 8, in the EAX register.
2. Put the filename in the EBX register.
3. Put the file permissions in the ECX register.

The system call returns the file descriptor of the created file in the EAX
register, in case of error, the error code is in the EAX register.

Opening an Existing File

For opening an existing file, perform the following tasks −
1. Put the system call sys_open() number 5, in the EAX register.
2. Put the filename in the EBX register.
3. Put the file access mode in the ECX register.
4. Put the file permissions in the EDX register.

The system call returns the file descriptor of the created file in the EAX
register, in case of error, the error code is in the EAX register.
Among the file access modes, most commonly used are: read-only (0),
write-only (1), and read-write (2).

Reading from a File

For reading from a file, perform the following tasks −
1. Put the system call sys_read() number 3, in the EAX register.
2. Put the file descriptor in the EBX register.
3. Put the pointer to the input buffer in the ECX register.
4. Put the buffer size, i.e., the number of bytes to read, in the EDX
register.

The system call returns the number of bytes read in the EAX register, in
case of error, the error code is in the EAX register.

Writing to a File
For writing to a file, perform the following tasks −
1. Put the system call sys_write() number 4, in the EAX register.
2. Put the file descriptor in the EBX register.
3. Put the pointer to the output buffer in the ECX register.
4. Put the buffer size, i.e., the number of bytes to write, in the EDX
register.

The system call returns the actual number of bytes written in the EAX
register, in case of error, the error code is in the EAX register.

Closing a File
For closing a file, perform the following tasks −
1. Put the system call sys_close() number 6, in the EAX register.
2. Put the file descriptor in the EBX register.

The system call returns, in case of error, the error code in the EAX register.

Updating a File
For updating a file, perform the following tasks −
1. Put the system call sys_lseek () number 19, in the EAX register.
2. Put the file descriptor in the EBX register.
3. Put the offset value in the ECX register.
4. Put the reference position for the offset in the EDX register.

The reference position could be:

1. Beginning of file - value 0
2. Current position - value 1
3. End of file - value 2

The system call returns, in case of error, the error code in the EAX register.

Example
The following program creates and opens a file named myfile.txt, and
writes a text 'Welcome to Tutorials Point' in this file. Next, the program
reads from the file and stores the data into a buffer named info. Lastly, it
displays the text as stored in info.
section ​.text
global _start ;must be declared for using gcc
_start: ;tell linker entry point
;create the file
mov eax, 8
mov ebx, file_name
mov ecx, 0777 ;read, write and execute by all
int 0x80 ;call kernel
mov [fd_out], eax

; write into the file

mov ​edx,len ;number of bytes
mov ​ecx, msg ;message to write
mov ​ebx, [fd_out] ;file descriptor
mov ​eax,4 ;system call number (sys_write)
int ​0x80 ;call kernel
; close the file
mov eax, 6
mov ebx, [fd_out]

; write the message indicating end of file write

mov eax, 4
mov ebx, 1
mov ecx, msg_done
mov edx, len_done
int 0x80

;open the file for reading

mov eax, 5
mov ebx, file_name
mov ecx, 0 ;for read only access
mov edx, 0777 ;read, write and execute by all
int 0x80
mov [fd_in], eax

;read from file

mov eax, 3
mov ebx, [fd_in]
mov ecx, info
mov edx, 26
int 0x80

; close the file

mov eax, 6
mov ebx, [fd_in]
int 0x80
; print the info
mov eax, 4
mov ebx, 1
mov ecx, info
mov edx, 26
int 0x80

mov ​eax,1 ;system call number (sys_exit)

 int ​0x80 ;call kernel
section ​.data
file_name db 'myfile.txt'
msg db 'Welcome to Tutorials Point'
len equ $-msg
msg_done db 'Written to file', 0xa
len_done equ $-msg_done
section .bss
fd_out resb 1
fd_in resb 1
info resb 26
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
Written to file
Welcome to Tutorials Point

Assembly - Memory Management

The sys_brk() system call is provided by the kernel, to allocate memory
without the need of moving it later. This call allocates memory right behind
the application image in the memory. This system function allows you to set
the highest available address in the data section.
This system call takes one parameter, which is the highest memory address
needed to be set. This value is stored in the EBX register.
In case of any error, sys_brk() returns -1 or returns the negative error code
itself. The following example demonstrates dynamic memory allocation.

Example
The following program allocates 16kb of memory using the sys_brk()
system call −
section ​.text
global _start ;must be declared for using gcc
_start:​ ;tell linker entry point
mov ​eax, 45 ​ ​;sys_brk
xor e​ bx, ebx
int ​80h
add e​ ax, 16384 ​;number of bytes to be reserved
mov ​ebx, eax
mov ​eax, 45 ​ ​;sys_brk
int ​80h
cmp e​ ax, 0
jl ​exit ​;exit, if error
mov ​edi, eax ​;EDI = highest available address
sub ​edi, 4 ​ ​;pointing to the last DWORD
mov ​ecx, 4096 ​;number of DWORDs allocated
xor ​eax, eax ​;clear eax
std ​ ​;backward
rep ​stosd ;repete for entire allocated area
cld ​ ​;put DF flag to normal state
mov ​eax, 4
mov ​ebx, 1
mov ​ecx, msg
mov ​edx, len
int ​80h ​ ​;print a message
exit:
mov e​ ax, 1
xor ​ebx, ebx
int ​80h
section .​data
msg ​db ​"Allocated 16 kb of memory!", 10
len equ ​$ - msg
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
Allocated 16 kb of memory!
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