0% found this document useful (0 votes)
33 views80 pages

Module_2

Module 2 of the Electronics & Communication course covers oscillators, including their types, conditions for oscillation, and specific examples like the Wien bridge and ladder network oscillators. It also discusses operational amplifiers, detailing their parameters, configurations, and characteristics. The module includes practical problems to reinforce understanding of these concepts.

Uploaded by

abdul sattar
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
33 views80 pages

Module_2

Module 2 of the Electronics & Communication course covers oscillators, including their types, conditions for oscillation, and specific examples like the Wien bridge and ladder network oscillators. It also discusses operational amplifiers, detailing their parameters, configurations, and characteristics. The module includes practical problems to reinforce understanding of these concepts.

Uploaded by

abdul sattar
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 80

Introduction to

Electronics & Communication


22ESC143

Module - 2
Module - 2 Topics
• Oscillators – Barkhausen criterion, sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal oscillators,
Ladder network oscillator, Wein bridge oscillator, Multivibrators, Single-stage
astable oscillator, Crystal controlled oscillators
• Operational amplifiers - Operational amplifier parameters, Operational amplifier
characteristics, Operational amplifier configurations, Operational amplifier
circuits.

2
Text Book
Mike Tooley, ‘Electronic Circuits, Fundamentals & Applications’,
4th Edition, Elsevier, 2015. DOI https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315737980
eBook ISBN9781315737980.

Chapters 8, 9

3
Oscillators
Oscillators
❑ Oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a periodic, oscillating
electronic signal, often a sine wave or a square wave or a triangle wave.

❑ Oscillators convert direct current (DC) from a power supply to an


alternating current (AC) signal.

❑ They are widely used in many electronic devices ranging from simplest
clock generators to digital instruments (like calculators) and complex
computers and peripherals etc.

❑ Common examples of signals generated by oscillators include signals


broadcast by radio and television transmitters, clock signals that regulate
computers and quartz clocks, and the sounds produced by electronic
beepers and video games.
Conditions for oscillations (Barkhausen criterion)

a) The feedback must be positive (i.e. the signal fed back must arrive back in-
phase with the signal at the input)

b) The overall loop voltage gain must be greater than 1 (i.e. the amplifier’s gain
must be sufficient to overcome the losses associated with any frequency
selective feedback network).
Amplifier with Positive Feedback
➢ Output is fed back in such a way as to reinforce the input (rather
than to subtract from it), is known as positive feedback.
➢ Amplifier provides a phase shift of 180° and the feedback network provides a
further 180°. Thus the overall phase shift is 0°.
Amplifier with Positive Feedback
Positive feedback
Positive feedback
Amplifier with Positive feedback
Amplifier with Positive feedback
• When the loop gain Avβ approaches unity, the denominator (1- Avβ) will become
close to zero.
• This leads to increase in the overall gain. i.e the overall gain with positive feedback
applied will be greater than gain without feedback.

• Example 1:
• Assume that you have an amplifier with a gain of 9 and one- tenth of the output is
fed back to the input (i.e. β = 0.1).
• In this case the loop gain (β × Av) is 0.9.
Amplifier with Positive feedback
• Example 1:
• Assume that you have an amplifier with a gain of 9 and one- tenth of the output is
fed back to the input (i.e. β = 0.1).
• In this case the loop gain (β × Av) is 0.9.

❑ With negative feedback, the overall gain is:


Amplifier with Positive feedback
• Example 1:
• Assume that you have an amplifier with a gain of 9 and one- tenth of the output is
fed back to the input (i.e. β = 0.1).
• In this case the loop gain (β × Av) is 0.9.

❑ With negative feedback, the overall gain is:

❑ With positive feedback, the overall gain is:


• Example 2: Assume that you have an amplifier with a gain of 10
and one-tenth of the output is fed back to the input (i.e. β = 0.1). In
this case the loop gain (β × Av) is 1.

• With negative feedback, the overall gain is:

• With positive feedback, the overall gain is:


Conditions for oscillations (Barkhausen criterion)

a) The feedback must be positive (i.e. the signal fed back must arrive back in-
phase with the signal at the input)

b) The overall loop voltage gain must be greater than 1 (i.e. the amplifier’s gain
must be sufficient to overcome the losses associated with any frequency
selective feedback network).
Ladder Network Oscillator

frequency of oscillation
Ladder Network Oscillator
• The total phase shift provided by the C–R ladder
network (connected between collector and base)
is 180° at the frequency of oscillation.

• The transistor provides the other 180° phase shift


in order to realize an overall phase shift of 360° or
0°.

• The frequency of oscillation of the circuit is


given by:
Problem 1
• Determine the frequency of oscillation of a three-stage ladder
network oscillator in which C = 10 nF and R = 10 kΩ.
Ladder network oscillator
• Determine the frequency of oscillation of a three-stage ladder
network oscillator in which C = 10 nF and R = 10 kΩ.
Wien bridge oscillator
Wien bridge oscillator
➢ At one particular frequency, the phase
shift produced by the network will be
exactly zero
(i.e. the input and output signals will be in-
phase).

➢ If we connect the network to an


amplifier producing 0° phase shift which
has sufficient gain to overcome the
losses of the Wien bridge, oscillation will
result.
Wien bridge oscillator
• The minimum amplifier gain required to sustain oscillation is given
by:
Wien bridge oscillator
• The minimum amplifier gain required to sustain oscillation is given
by:

• When C1 = C2 and R1 = R2, the frequency at which the phase shift


will be zero is given by:
Wien bridge oscillator

• When C1 = C2 and R1 = R2, the frequency at which the phase shift


will be zero is given by:
Problem on Wien bridge oscillator
Q.Figure shows the circuit of a Wien bridge oscillator based on an
operational amplifier. If C1 = C 2 = 100 nF, determine the output
frequencies produced by this arrangement (a) when R1 = R2 = 1 kΩ
and (b) when R1 = R2 = 6 kΩ.
• Figure shows the circuit of a Wien bridge oscillator based on an operational amplifier. If C1 = C 2 = 100 nF,
determine the output frequencies produced by this arrangement (a) when R1 = R2 = 1 kΩ and (b) when
R1 = R2 = 6 kΩ.
• Figure shows the circuit of a Wien bridge oscillator based on an operational amplifier. If C1 = C
2 = 100 nF, determine the output frequencies produced by this arrangement (a) when R1 = R2
= 1 kΩ and (b) when R1 = R2 = 6 kΩ.
Q. In a Wien bridge oscillator based on an operational amplifier,
C1=C2=22 nF. Determine the values of R1 and R2 required to produce
an output at exactly 400 Hz.

Solve
Multivibrators
• Multivibrators are a family of oscillator circuits that produce output
waveforms consisting of one or more rectangular pulses.

• Multivibrators use regenerative (i.e. positive) feedback; the active


devices present within the oscillator circuit being operated as
switches, being alternately cut-off and driven into saturation.
Astable multivibrators

Monostable multivibrators

Bistable multivibrators
Astable multivibrators
Monostable multivibrators
Multivibrators
• The principal types of multivibrator are:
a) astable multivibrators that provide a continuous train of pulses
(these are sometimes also referred to as free-running
multivibrators);
b) monostable multivibrators that produce a single output pulse (they
have one stable state and are thus sometimes also referred to as
‘one-shot’);
c) bistable multivibrators that have two stable states and require a
trigger pulse or control signal to change from one state to another.
Single-stage astable oscillator
• A simple form of astable oscillator that
produces a square wave output can be built
using just one operational amplifier
• The circuit employs positive feedback with
the output fed back to the non-inverting input
via the potential divider formed by R1 and
R2.
• This circuit can make a very simple square
wave source with a frequency that can be
made adjustable by replacing R with a
variable or preset resistor.
Single-stage astable oscillator
• Assume that C is initially uncharged and the voltage at the inverting input is
slightly less than the voltage at the non-inverting input.
• The output voltage will rise rapidly to +VCC and the voltage at the inverting input
will begin to rise exponentially as capacitor C charges through R.
• Eventually the voltage at the inverting input will have reached a value that causes
the voltage at the inverting input to exceed that present at the non-inverting input.
• At this point, the output voltage will rapidly fall to −VCC.

• Capacitor C will then start to charge in the other direction and the voltage at the
inverting input will begin to fall exponentially.
Crystal controlled oscillator
• The quartz crystal vibrates whenever a potential difference is applied across its faces (this
phenomenon is known as the piezoelectric effect).
• The frequency of oscillation is determined by the crystal’s ‘cut’ and physical size.
Operational Amplifiers
Operational Amplifiers
1. An operational amplifier, or op-amp, is the most important and versatile
analog IC.

2. It is a direct coupled multistage voltage amplifier with an extremely high


gain.

3. The variety of useful circuits can be built without the necessity of knowing

about the complex internal circuitry.


Operational Amplifiers
Operational amplifier parameters
1. Open-loop voltage gain
2. Closed-loop voltage gain
3. Input resistance
4. Output resistance
5. Input offset voltage
6. Full-power bandwidth
7. Slew rate
1) Open-loop voltage gain:

The open-loop voltage gain of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of


output voltage to input voltage measured with no feedback applied.

• Typically greater than 100,000


2) Closed-loop voltage gain:
The closed-loop voltage gain of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio
of output voltage to input voltage with feedback applied.

• The effect of providing negative feedback is to reduce the loop voltage gain to a value that is both
predictable and manageable.
Problem 1
An operational amplifier operating with negative feedback
produces an output voltage of 2 V when supplied with an input
of 400 V. Determine the value of closed-loop voltage gain.
Problem 8.1
An operational amplifier operating with negative feedback produces an
output voltage of 2 V when supplied with an input of 400 V. Determine
the value of closed-loop voltage gain.
Problem 8.1
An operational amplifier operating with negative feedback produces an
output voltage of 2 V when supplied with an input of 400 V. Determine
the value of closed-loop voltage gain.
3) Input resistance:

The input resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of


input voltage to input current expressed in ohms.

In practice values range from about 2 Mega ohms for common bipolar types


4) Output resistance:

The output resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of


open-circuit output voltage to short-circuit output current expressed in ohms.

• Typical values of output resistance range from less than 10 Ω to around 100 Ω, depending upon
the configuration and amount of feedback employed.

• where ROUT is the output resistance (in ohms), VOUT(OC) is the open-circuit output voltage (in
volts) and IOUT(SC) is the short-circuit output current (in amps).
Problem 2
An operational amplifier has an input resistance of 2
Mega ohms Determine the input current when an input
voltage of 5 mV is present
Problem 2
An operational amplifier has an input resistance of 2
Mega ohms Determine the input current when an input
voltage of 5 mV is present
Problem 2
An operational amplifier has an input resistance of 2 Mega ohms
Determine the input current when an input voltage of 5 mV is present
5) Input offset voltage:
An ideal operational amplifier would provide zero output voltage when 0V difference is
applied to its inputs.

6) Slew rate:
The slew rate of an operational amplifier is the rate of change of output voltage with time in
response to a perfect step-function input. Hence:
Slew rate
Problem 3
A perfect rectangular pulse is applied to the input of an
operational amplifier. If it takes 4 s for the output voltage to
change from –5 V to +5 V, determine the slew rate of the
device
Problem 3
A perfect rectangular pulse is applied to the input of an
operational amplifier. If it takes 4 s for the output voltage to
change from –5 V to +5 V, determine the slew rate of the
device
Problem 4
A wideband operational amplifier has a slew rate of 15 V/s. If the
amplifier is used in a circuit with a voltage gain of 20 and a perfect step
input of 100 mV is applied to its input, determine the time
taken for the output to change level.
Problem 4
A wideband operational amplifier has a slew rate of 15 V/s. If the
amplifier is used in a circuit with a voltage gain of 20 and a perfect step
input of 100 mV is applied to its input, determine the time
taken for the output to change level.
During measurements on an operational amplifier under open-loop
conditions, an output voltage of 12 V is produced by an input voltage
of 1 mV. Determine the open-loop voltage gain expressed in dB.
An operational amplifier operating with negative feedback produces an output
voltage of 2 V when supplied with an input of 400 μV. Determine the value of
closed-loop voltage gain.
An operational amplifier with negative feedback applied produces
an output of 1.5 V when an input of 7.5 mV is present. Determine the
closed-loop voltage gain
An operational amplifier has an input resistance of 2 MΩ.
Determine the input current when an input voltage of 5 mV
is present.
Operational amplifier characteristics

Desirable characteristics for an ‘ideal’ operational amplifier


(a) The open-loop voltage gain should be very high (ideally infinite).
(b) The input resistance should be very high (ideally infinite).
(c) The output resistance should be very low (ideally zero).
(d) Full-power bandwidth should be as wide as possible.
(e) Slew rate should be as large as possible.
(f) Input offset should be as small as possible.
Various
Configurations
• Inverting amplifier
of Op-amp

• Non inverting amplifier

• Differential amplifier
Operational amplifier configurations
When the bandwidth of the amplifier greatly exceeds that of the signal that it is required
to amplify. In such cases, capacitors of appropriate value may be inserted in series with
the input resistor, RIN, and in parallel with the feedback resistor, RF

a) Band-limiting Circuit b) Resulting frequency Response


Problem 5
An inverting operational amplifier is to operate according to the following
specification:
Voltage gain = 100
Input resistance (at mid-band) = 10 kilo ohms
Lower cut-off frequency = 250 Hz
Upper cut-off frequency = 15 kHz
Devise a circuit to satisfy the above specification using an operational amplifier.
Problem 5
An inverting operational amplifier is to operate according to the following specification:
Voltage gain = 100
Input resistance (at mid-band) = 10 kilo ohms
Lower cut-off frequency = 250 Hz
Upper cut-off frequency = 15 kHz
Devise a circuit to satisfy the above specification using an operational amplifier.
An inverting amplifier is to be constructed having a mid-band voltage gain of
40, an input resistance of 5 kΩ and a frequency response extending from 20 Hz
to 20 kHz. Devise a circuit and specify all component values required
Voltage followers
• This circuit is essentially an inverting amplifier in which 100% of the output is fed back to the input.
• The result is an amplifier that has a voltage gain of 1 (i.e. unity), a very high input resistance and a very
high output resistance.
• This stage is often referred to as a buffer and is used for matching a high-impedance circuit to a low-
impedance circuit.

a) Voltage follower
b) Input and output waveforms
Operational amplifier circuits

Comparators:
❑ The output voltage produced by the operational amplifier will
rise to the maximum possible value (equal to the positive supply
rail voltage) whenever the voltage present at the non-inverting
input exceeds that present at the inverting input.

• Output voltage produced by the op-amp will fall to the minimum


possible value whenever the voltage present at the inverting input
exceeds that present at the non-inverting input.
Operational amplifiercircuits
• Differentiators: A differentiator produces an output
voltage that is equivalent to the rate of change of its input.
• This simply means that if the input voltage remains
constant (i.e. if it isn’t changing) the output also remains
constant. a) Differentiator

• The faster the input voltage changes the greater will the
output be.
• In mathematics this is equivalent to the differential
function.

b) Input and Output Waveforms


Operational amplifiercircuits
• Integrators: This circuit provides the opposite function to that of a differentiator (see earlier) in that its
output is equivalent to the area under the graph of the input function rather than its rate of change.
• If the input voltage remains constant (and is other than 0 V) the output voltage will ramp up or down
according to the polarity of the input.

• The longer the input voltage remains at a particular value the larger the value of output voltage (of either
polarity) will be produced.

a) Integrator
b) Input and Output Waveforms
Operational amplifier circuits

Summing amplifiers: This circuit produces an output that is the sum of its two
input voltages.

However, since the operational amplifier is connected in inverting mode, the output voltage
is given by:

Vout = −(V1 + V2)

Vout = −(V1 + V2)

Summer

You might also like