sec Members

In alphabetical order
HAPITA, ROSE ANN R.
(surname first)
A1 TOPIC: Introduction To Statistics
CATEGORIES ANSWERS
1.​ Explain what is Statistics is a branch of applied mathematics that involves the collection, description,
statistics analysis, and inference of conclusions from quantitative data.
2.​ What are the two The two main branches of statistics are descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.
major areas in Both of these are employed in scientific analysis of data and both are equally important
statistics? for the student of statistics.
3.​ Discuss what is Descriptive statistics are brief informational coefficients that summarize a given data
descriptive statics set, which can be either a representation of the entire population or a sample of a
population.
4.​ Give examples of The descriptive statistics examples are given as follows: Suppose the marks of
descriptive statics students belonging to class A are {70, 85, 90, 65) and class B are {60, 40, 89, 96}.
Then the average marks of each class can be given by the mean as 77.5 and 71.25.
This denotes that the average of class A is more than class B.
5.​ Discuss what is Inferential statistics can be defined as a field of statistics that uses analytical tools for
inferential statistics drawing conclusions about a population by examining random samples. The goal of
inferential statistics is to make generalizations about a population.
6.​ Give an example of You randomly select a sample of 11th graders in your state and collect data on their
inferential statistics SAT scores and other characteristics. You can use inferential statistics to make
estimates and test hypotheses about the whole population of 11th graders in the state
based on your sample data.
7.​ What are the types of There are only 2 classes of data in statistics: quantitative data and qualitative data.
data in statistics? This highest level of classification comes from the fact that data can either be
measured or can be an observed feature of interest.
8.​ what is the Nominal: the data can only be categorized. Ordinal: the data can be categorized and
classification of ranked. Interval: the data can be categorized, ranked, and evenly spaced. Ratio: the
variables in statistics data can be categorized, ranked, evenly spaced, and has a natural zero.
9.​ Give concrete Nominal: genotype, blood type, zip code, gender, race, eye color, political party
examples in each Ordinal: socio economic status. education level, income level, satisfaction rating
classification of Interval: temperature, SAT score, credit score, pH.
variables in statics Ratio: enzyme activity, dose amount, reaction rate, flow rate, concentration, pulse,
weight, length, temperature in Kelvin, survival time.
10.​ What is the Statistical knowledge helps to choose the proper method of collecting the data and
significance/ employ those samples in the correct analysis process in order to effectively produce
importance or usage the results. In short, statistics is a crucial process which helps to make the decision
of statistics based on the data.
​
11.​ Give concrete ●​ Statistics allows us to make sense of and interpret a great deal of information
examples (3) of the ●​ Statistics allow the psychologists to organize, describe, and make inferences
usage of statistics in about data to test a hypothesis, predicting possible future outcomes.
psychology ●​ By understanding the research process, including the kinds of statistical
analysis that are used, you will be able to become a wise consumer of
 psychology information and make better judgments of the information that you
come across.
12.​ Describe the nature Social research can be defined as the systematic and objective analysis and recording
of social research of controlled observations that may lead to the development of generalization,
principles or theories resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events in
society. It attempts to answer or solve social problems.
13.​ Why do we need to The purpose of testing the hypothesis is to make an inference about the population of
test hypotheses in interest on the basis of random sample taken from that population. Furthermore, it is
social research? the assumption which is tested to determine the relationship between two data sets.
References (in APA format)
Use any references except
1.​ Chappelow, J. (2024). Statistics: Definition, Types, and Importance.
wikipedia
Investopedia.https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/statistics.asp#:~:text=Error
%20Code%3A%20100013)-,What%20Is%20Statistics%3F,linear%20algebra%
2C%20and%20probability%20theory.
2.​ ‌Kalla, S. (2025). Branches of Statistics - Descriptive and Interferential
Statistics. Explorable.com.
https://explorable.com/branches-of-statistics#:~:text=The%20two%20main%2
0branches%20of,for%20the%20student%20of%20statistics.
3.​ Hayes, A. (2024). Descriptive Statistics: Definition, Overview, Types, and
Examples. Investopedia.
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/descriptive_statistics.asp#:~:text=Descr
iptive%20statistics%20are%20brief%20informational,measures%20of%20vari
ability%20(spread).
4.​ Descriptive Statistics - Examples, Types, Definition, Formulas. (2022).
Cuemath. https://www.cuemath.com/data/descriptive-statistics/
5.​ ‌Inferential Statistics - Definition, Types, Examples, Formulas. (2022).
Cuemath. https://www.cuemath.com/data/inferential-statistics/
6.​ ‌Bhandari, P. (2020). Inferential statistics: An easy introduction & examples.
Scribbr.https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/inferential-statistics/#:~:text=Exampl
e%3A%20Inferential%20statistics%20You%20randomly,based%20on%20your
%20sample%20data.
7.​ Prakash, D. (2022, November 2). Statistical Data Types : All You Need to
Know. Turing.com; Turing Enterprises Inc.
https://www.turing.com/kb/statistical-data-types
8.​ Bhandari, P. (2020, July 16). Levels of Measurement | Nominal, Ordinal,
Interval and Ratio. Scribbr.
https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/levels-of-measurement/#:~:text=Nominal%3
A%20the%20data%20can%20only,and%20has%20a%20natural%20zero.
9.​ ‌What is the difference between ordinal, interval and ratio variables? Why
should I care? - FAQ 1089 - GraphPad. (2025). Graphpad.com.
https://www.graphpad.com/support/faq/what-is-the-difference-between-ordinal-
interval-and-ratio-variables-why-should-i-care/#:~:text=Examples%20of%20no
minal%20variables%20include,race%2C%20eye%20color%2C%20political%2
0party
10.​‌Admin. (2020, April 3). Statistics Definition (Types, Importance and Examples).
BYJUS; BYJU’S. https://byjus.com/maths/statistics-definition/
11.​ Cherry, K. (2019). Why are statistics necessary in psychology?
https://online210.psych.wisc.edu/wp-content/uploads/PSY-210_Unit_Materials/
PSY-210_Unit01_Materials/Cherry_VeryWell_2019.pdf
12.​‌Characteristics Meaning and Definition. (n.d.).
https://aleemakhtaramu.weebly.com/uploads/9/3/5/5/93558310/social_researc
h.pdf
13.​‌Shrutika Sirisilla. (2022, June 9). 6 Steps to Evaluate the Effectiveness of
Statistical Hypothesis Testing. Enago Academy.
https://www.enago.com/academy/evaluate-statistical-hypothesis-testing/#:~:te
xt=The%20purpose%20of%20testing%20the,relationship%20between%20two
%20data%20sets.
sec Members
In alphabetical order
HAPITA, ROSE ANN R.
(surname first)
A2 TOPIC: Levels of Measurement
CATEGORIES ANSWERS
1 Discuss what is the Levels of measurement, also called scales of measurement, tell you how precisely
level of measurement variables are recorded. In scientific research, a variable is anything that can take on
different values across your data set (e.g., height or test scores).
2.​ What are the 4 levels Statisticians often refer to the "levels of measurement" of a variable, a measure, or a
of measurement? scale to distinguish between measured variables that have different properties. There
are four basic levels: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.
3.​ Give 4 concrete A nominal scale is a naming scale where variables are simply “named” or labeled with
examples of each no specific order. The ordinal scale has all its variables in a specific order, beyond just
level of measurement naming them. Interval scale offers labels, order, as well as a specific interval between
each of its variable options.The ratio scale bears all the characteristics of an interval
scale. In addition to that, it can also accommodate the value of “zero” on any of its
variables.

4.​ Describe what Descriptive statistics is a branch of statistics that summarizes and describes the main
descriptive statistics features of a dataset, providing insights into its central tendency, variability, and
can be applied at distribution of data.
each level of
measurement
5.​ Give 5 importance or 1) obtain consistency with the conceptual definition;
usage of 2) solicit critiques of poorly constructed operational definitions that will yield poor data;
understanding the 3) ensure that the data produced will be sufficient for decision-making and taking
levels of action.
measurement 4.) It is important to understand the level of measurement of variables in research,
because the level of measurement determines the type of statistical analysis that can
be conducted, and, therefore, the type of conclusions that can be drawn from the
research.
5.) It gives us proper knowledge of the type of measurement needed in a problem
References (in APA format) 1.​ Bhandari, P. (2020, July 16). Levels of Measurement | Nominal, Ordinal,
Use any references except Interval and Ratio. Scribbr.
wikipedia https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/levels-of-measurement/
2.​ ‌lecture1. (2025). Pdx.edu. https://web.pdx.edu/~newsomj/pa551/lecture1.htm
3.​ ‌Bhat, A. (2018, May 22). Levels of Measurement: “Nominal Ordinal Interval
Ratio” Scales. QuestionPro.
https://www.questionpro.com/blog/nominal-ordinal-interval-ratio/
4.​ ‌Yash Keshari. (2023, June 17). Introduction: In the field of statistics,
understanding the scale of measurement and descriptive statistics is crucial
for accurate data analysis. This article aims to provide a concise overview of
these topics. Linkedin.com.
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/understanding-statistics-part-3-scale-measure
ment-its-yash-keshari
 5.​ M
‌ easurement. (2025). Csulb.edu.
https://home.csulb.edu/~msaintg/ppa696/696meas.htm#:~:text=It%20is%20im
portant%20to%20understand,be%20drawn%20from%20the%20research.

sec Members
In alphabetical order
HAPITA, ROSE ANN R.
(surname first)
A3 TOPIC: Sampling Techniques
CATEGORIES ANSWERS
1 What is sampling In Statistics, the sampling method or sampling technique is the process of studying the
techniques? population by gathering information and analyzing that data. It is the basis of the data
where the sample space is enormous.
2.​ What are the different Probability sampling, also known as random sampling, is a kind of sample selection where
types of sampling randomisation is used instead of deliberate choice. Each member of the population has a
techniques known, non-zero chance of being selected. (Simple random sampling,
systematic,stratified, cluster.) ​
​
Non-probability sampling techniques are where the researcher deliberately picks items or
individuals for the sample based on non-random factors such as convenience, geographic
availability, or costs. (Convenience, quota, purposive, snowball sampling)

3.​ Give the advantages 1. Simple Random Sampling:

and disadvantages of ●​ Pros: Simple random sampling is easy to do and cheap. Designed to ensure
using each sampling that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected, it
techniques used in reduces the risk of bias compared to non-random sampling.
social research ●​ Cons: It offers no control for the researcher and may lead to unrepresentative
groupings being picked by chance.

2. Systematic Sampling:
●​ Pros: Systematic sampling is efficient and straightforward, especially when
dealing with populations that have a clear order. It ensures a uniform selection
across the population.
●​ Cons: There’s a potential risk of introducing bias if there’s an unrecognized
pattern in the population that aligns with the sampling interval.

3. Stratified Sampling:
●​ Pros: Stratified sampling enhances the representation of all identified
subgroups within a population, leading to more accurate results in
heterogeneous populations.
 ●​ Cons: This method requires accurate knowledge about the population’s
stratification, and its design and execution can be more intricate than other
methods

4. Cluster Sampling:
●​ Pros: Cluster sampling is economically beneficial and logistically easier when
dealing with vast and geographically dispersed populations.
●​ Cons: Due to potential similarities within clusters, this method can introduce a
greater sampling error compared to other methods.

5. Convenience Sampling:
●​ Pros: Convenience sampling is the most straightforward method, requiring
minimal planning, making it quick to implement.
●​ Cons: Due to its non-random nature, the method is highly susceptible to
biases, and the results are often lacking in their application to the real world.

6. Quota Sampling:
●​ Pros: Quota sampling ensures certain subgroups are adequately represented,
making it great for when random sampling isn’t feasible but representation is
necessary.
●​ Cons: The selection within each quota is non-random and researchers’
discretion can influence the representation, which both strongly increase the
risk of bias.

7. Purposive Sampling:
●​ Pros: Purposive sampling targets specific criteria or characteristics, making it
ideal for studies that require specialised participants or specific conditions.
●​ Cons: It’s highly subjective and based on researchers’ judgment, which can
introduce biases and limit the study’s real-world application.

8. Snowball Sampling:
●​ Pros: Especially useful for hard-to-reach or secretive populations, snowball
sampling is effective for certain niche studies.
●​ Cons: The method can introduce bias due to the reliance on participant
referrals, and the choice of initial seeds can significantly influence the final
sample.
4.​ Give 5 importance or 1. Helps save valuable time
usage of 2. reduce cost
understanding the 3. Create more scope
sampling techniques 4. Achieve greater speed
5. Improving accuracy of data
References (in APA format) 1.​ Admin. (2019, August 8). Sampling Methods (Techniques) - Types of Sampling
Use any references except Methods and Examples. BYJUS; BYJU’S.
wikipedia https://byjus.com/maths/sampling-methods/
2.​ ‌Qualtrics. (2021, April 12). Sampling Methods: Types, Techniques & Best
Practices. Qualtrics.
https://www.qualtrics.com/en-au/experience-management/research/sampling-
methods/
3.​ Q‌ ualtrics. (2021, April 12). Sampling Methods: Types, Techniques & Best
Practices. Qualtrics.
https://www.qualtrics.com/en-au/experience-management/research/sampling-
methods/
4.​ ‌Agrawal, V. (2020, March 30). The world is heading towards AI, Big Data and
Machine Learning and we see high volumes of data on daily basis. All these
data can be meaningful only when we analyze and get some insights from
them. Linkedin.com.
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/why-sampling-important-vithika-agrawal#:~:text
=Use%20of%20various%20sampling%20techniques,coincide%20with%20the
%20target%20population.
sec Members
In alphabetical order
HAPITA, ROSE ANN R.
(surname first)
A4 TOPIC: Organizing Data
CATEGORIES ANSWERS
5 What is a frequency A frequency distribution is a representation, either in a graphical or tabular format, that
distribution? displays the number of observations within a given interval.
6.​ What is the It allows you to quickly understand the distribution of the data, including which data
importance of values are most and least common and whether there are outliers. It is also possible to
understanding quickly find the mode of the data since it will be the data value(s) with the greatest
frequency frequency.
distribution?
7.​ Describe what is the A proportion is a part, share or number considered in comparative relation to a whole.
proportion It can be equal to 0, 1 or any value between 0 and 1. It can be expressed as a number
or percentage.
8.​ How can we convert Example: A gardener set up a bird feeder in their backyard. To help them decide how
any frequency into
proportion for much and what type of birdseed to buy, they decide to record the bird species that visit
ungroup data? Give
an example their feeder. Over the course of one morning, the following birds visit their feeder:

●​ Create a table with two columns and as many rows as there are values of the

variable. Label the first column using the variable name and label the second

column “Frequency.” Enter the values in the first column.

○​ For ordinal variables, the values should be ordered from smallest to

largest in the table rows.

○​ For nominal variables, the values can be in any order in the table. You

may wish to order them alphabetically or in some other logical order.

●​ Count the frequencies. The frequencies are the number of times each value

occurs. Enter the frequencies in the second column of the table beside their

corresponding values.

○​ Especially if your dataset is large, it may help to count the frequencies

by tallying. Add a third column called “Tally.” As you read the

observations, make a tick mark in the appropriate row of the tally

 column for each observation. Count the tally marks to determine the

frequency.

9.​ How can we convert Example: A sociologist conducted a survey of 20 adults. She wants to report the
any frequency into frequency distribution of the ages of the survey respondents. The respondents were
proportion for group the following ages in years:
data? Give an 52, 34, 32, 29, 63, 40, 46, 54, 36, 36, 24, 19, 45, 20, 28, 29, 38, 33, 49, 37
example

●​ Divide the variable into class intervals. Below is one method to divide a

variable into class intervals. Different methods will give different answers,

but there’s no agreement on the best method to calculate class intervals.

○​ Calculate the range. Subtract the lowest value in the dataset from

the highest.

○​ Decide the class interval width. There are no firm rules on how to

choose the width, but the following formula is a rule of thumb:

○​ You can round this value to a whole number or a number that’s

convenient to add (such as a multiple of 10).

○​ Calculate the class intervals. Each interval is defined by a lower

limit and upper limit. Observations in a class interval are greater
than or equal to the lower limit and less than the upper limit:
○​ The lower limit of the first interval is the lowest value in the dataset.

Add the class interval width to find the upper limit of the first interval

and the lower limit of the second variable. Keep adding the interval

width to calculate more class intervals until you exceed the highest

value.

●​ Create a table with two columns and as many rows as there are class

intervals. Label the first column using the variable name and label the

second column “Frequency.” Enter the class intervals in the first column.

●​ Count the frequencies. The frequencies are the number of observations in

each class interval. You can count by tallying if you find it helpful. Enter the
 frequencies in the second column of the table beside their corresponding

class intervals.

10.​ How can we convert

any frequency into a
percentage for
ungroup data? Give
an example
11.​ How can we convert
any frequency into a
percentage for group
data? Give an
example
12.​ Give 6 concrete 1.) Allowing basic calculation of data
importance of 2.) Give precise measurement of the outcome
understanding 3.) Analyzes the proper distribution of table
frequency, proportion 4.) It counts the total numbers in a specific range or category
and percentage 5. ) Ensure the accuracy of the result
6.) Allow us to decide more confidently to our decision
13.​ What is a graphic A graphical representation is a visual representation of data statistics-based results
representation? using graphs, plots, and charts. This kind of representation is more effective in
understanding and comparing data than seen in a tabular form.
14.​ Give the different Line Graphs, Bar Graphs, Histograms, Line Plot, Circle Graph, Stem and Lead Plot,
graphic Box and Whisker Plot.
representation
15.​ Define each graphic ●​ Line Graphs – Line graph or the linear graph is used to display the continuous
representation and data and it is useful for predicting future events over time.
give when it is best to ●​ Bar Graphs – Bar Graph is used to display the category of data and it
be used compares the data using solid bars to represent the quantities.
●​ Histograms – The graph that uses bars to represent the frequency of
numerical data that are organised into intervals. Since all the intervals are
equal and continuous, all the bars have the same width.
●​ Line Plot – It shows the frequency of data on a given number line. ‘ x ‘ is
placed above a number line each time when that data occurs again.
●​ Frequency Table – The table shows the number of pieces of data that falls
within the given interval.
●​ Circle Graph – Also known as the pie chart that shows the relationships of the
parts of the whole. The circle is considered with 100% and the categories
occupied is represented with that specific percentage like 15%, 56%, etc.
●​ Stem and Leaf Plot – In the stem and leaf plot, the data are organised from
least value to the greatest value. The digits of the least place values from the
leaves and the next place value digit forms the stems.
●​ Box and Whisker Plot – The plot diagram summarises the data by dividing into
four parts. Box and whisker show the range (spread) and the middle ( median)
of the data.
16.​ Give 6 concrete
importance of
understanding 1.​ The data can be presented in a more attractive and appealing form. It
graphic provides a more lasting effect on the brain.
representation 2.​ Comparative analysis and interpretation may be effectively and easily
made.
3.​ Various valuable statistics like median, mode, quartiles may be easily
computed.
4.​ Such representation may help in the proper estimation, evaluation and
interpretation of the characteristics of items and individuals.
5.​ Graphical representation helps in forecasting, as it indicates the trend
of the data in the past.
6.​ It determines a more probable method to distribute datas

References (in APA format) 1.​ Young, J. (2024). Frequency Distribution: Definition. Investopedia.
Use any references except
wikipedia https://www.investopedia.com/terms/f/frequencydistribution.asp#:~:text=A%20f

requency%20distribution%20is%20a,of%20frequency%20of%20the%20variab

le.

2.​ ‌Statistics, in. (2023). Frequency Distribution in Statistics | Table & Examples -

Lesson | Study.com.

Study.com.https://study.com/learn/lesson/frequency-distribution-table.html#:~:t

ext=A%20frequency%20distribution%20is%20helpful,s)%20with%20the%20gr

eatest%20frequency.

3.​ ‌Canada,. (2021). Statistics 101: Proportions, ratios and rates. Statcan.gc.ca.

https://www.statcan.gc.ca/en/wtc/data-literacy/catalogue/892000062021003#:

~:text=A%20proportion%20is%20a%20part%2C%20share%20or%20number

%20considered%20in,lives%20in%20a%20given%20province.

4.​ ‌Turney, S. (2022, June 7). Frequency Distribution | Tables, Types & Examples.

Scribbr. https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/frequency-distributions/
5.​ ‌Turney, S. (2022, June 7). Frequency Distribution | Tables, Types & Examples.

Scribbr. https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/frequency-distributions/

6.​ ‌Graphical Representation - Definition, Rules, Principle, Types, Examples.

(2021). Cuemath.

https://www.cuemath.com/data/graphical-representation-of-data/

7.​ ‌Admin. (2019, March 6). Graphical Representation - Types, Rules, Principles

and Merits. BYJUS; BYJU’S.

https://byjus.com/maths/graphical-representation/

8.​ CK-12 Foundation. (2025). CK12-Foundation. CK-12 Foundation.

https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-cbse-math-class-9/section/14.3/primary

/lesson/graphical-representation-of-data/