ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT ANAYLYSIS

Course Objectives
 To introduce the basic concepts of electric circuits and the fundamental to analyze
DC electric circuits.
 To enable students, understand and apply the fundamental laws and theorems to
the analysis of AC circuits.

Course Desecrations
Basic concepts, basic laws, method of analysis and network theorems of DC circuits,
transformation techniques, natural and forced response of 1st and 2nd order systems.
sinusoidal and phasor, steady state single phase ac circuit analysis, three phase circuits, ac
power analysis, magnetically coupled circuits, frequency response.

Course Contents
 Basic concepts
 Fundamentals of dc circuit analysis
 Natural and forced response of 1st and 2nd order circuits
 Steady state single phase ac circuit analysis
 Magnetic coupled circuits
 Three phase circuits

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 Chapter one: Basic concepts
1.1. INTRODUCTION

Electric circuit theory and electromagnetic theory are the two fundamental theories upon
which all branches of electrical engineering are built. Many branches of electrical engineering,
such as power, electric machines, control, electronics, communications, and instrumentation,
are based on electric circuit theory. Therefore, the basic electric circuit theory course is the
most important course for an electrical engineering student, and always an excellent starting
point for a beginning student in electrical engineering education. Circuit theory is also valuable
to students specializing in other branches of the physical sciences because circuits are a good
model for the study of energy systems in general, and because of the applied mathematics,
physics, and topology involved.
In electrical engineering, we are often interested in communicating or transferring energy from
one point to another. To do this requires an interconnection of electrical devices. Such
interconnection is referred to as an electric circuit, and each component of the circuit is known
as an element.
An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements.
A simple electric circuit is shown in Fig. 1.1. It consists of three basic components: a battery,
a lamp, and connecting wires. Such a simple circuit can exist by itself; it has several
applications, such as a torch light, a search light, and so forth.

 Figure 1.1

A simple electric circuit.

1.2. ATOMS AND THEIR STRUCTUR

A basic understanding of the fundamental concepts of current and voltage requires a degree of
familiarity with the atom and its structure. The simplest of all atoms is the hydrogen atom,
made up of two basic particles, the proton and the electron, in the relative positions shown in
Fig. 1.2(a). The nucleus of the hydrogen atom is the proton, a positively charged particle. The
orbiting electron carries a negative charge that is equal in magnitude to the positive charge
of the proton. In all other elements, the nucleus also contains neutrons, which are slightly
heavier than protons and have no electrical charge. The helium atom, for example, has two

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neutrons in addition to two electrons and two protons, as shown in Fig. 1.2 (b). In all neutral
atoms the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons.

Figure 1.2: atomic structure of hydrogen and Helium atom

1.3. CHARGE AND CURRENT

The concept of electric charge is the underlying principle for explaining all electrical
phenomena. Also, the most basic quantity in an electric circuit is the electric charge. We know
from elementary physics that all matter is made of fundamental building blocks known as
atoms and that each atom consists of electrons, protons, and neutrons. We also know that the
charge e on an electron is negative and equal in magnitude to 1.602×10 -19 C, while a proton
carries a positive charge of the same magnitude as the electron. The presence of equal numbers
of protons and electrons leaves an atom neutrally charged.
Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists, measured in coulombs (C).
In 1 C of charge = 6.24 × 10 18 electrons.
When a conducting wire (consisting of several
atoms) is connected to a battery (a source of
electromotive force), the charges are compelled to
move; positive charges move in one direction while
negative charges move in the opposite direction.
This motion of charges creates electric current. It is
conventional to take the current flow as the
movement of positive charges, that is, opposite to
the flow of negative charges, as Fig.1.3 illustrates.
Although we now know that current in metallic
conductors is due to negatively charged electrons,
we will follow the universally accepted convention
that current is the net flow of positive charges. Figure 1.3: Basic electrical circuit and conventional current flow

Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes (A).

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Mathematically, the relationship between current i, charge q, and time t is

If the current does not change with time, but remains constant, we call it a direct current (dc).
A direct current (dc) is a current that remains constant with time. By convention the symbol
I is used to represent such a constant current.
A time-varying current is represented by the symbol i. A common form of time-varying current
is the sinusoidal current or alternating current (ac).
An alternating current (ac) is a current that varies sinusoidal with time. Such current is
used in your household, to run the air conditioner, refrigerator, washing machine, and other
electric appliances.
Figure 1.4 shows direct current and alternating current; these are the two most common types
of current.

Figure 1.4: Two common types of current: (a) direct current (dc), (b) alternating current (ac)

The current in amperes can now be calculated using the following equation:

1.4. VOLTAGE

To move the electron in a conductor in a particular direction requires some work or energy
transfer. This work is performed by an external electromotive force (emf), typically
represented by the battery. This emf is also known as voltage or potential difference. The
voltage vab between two points a and b in an electric circuit is the energy (or work) needed to
move a unit charge from a to b; mathematically,

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Where w is energy in joules (J) and q is charge in coulombs (C). The voltage vab or simply v is
measured in volts (V), named in honor of the Italian physicist Alessandro Antonio Volta, who
invented the first voltaic battery.
Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a unit charge through an
element, measured in volts (V).
1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb = 1 newton meter/coulomb
Current and voltage are the two basic variables in electric circuits. The common term signal is
used for an electric quantity such as a current or a voltage (or even electromagnetic wave)
when it is used for conveying information. Engineers prefer to call such variables signals rather
than mathematical functions of time because of their importance in communications and other
disciplines.
Like electric current, a constant voltage is called a dc voltage and is represented by V, whereas
a sinusoidal time-varying voltage is called an ac voltage and is represented by v. A dc voltage
is commonly produced by a battery; ac voltage is produced by an electric generator.
In general, the potential difference (volts) between two points is determined by
Where W=work done in joules
Q=charge in coulombs

1.5. ELECTRICAL POWER AND ENERGY

Although current and voltage are the two basic variables in an electric circuit, they are not
sufficient by themselves. For practical purposes, we need to know how much power an electric
device can handle. We all know from experience that a 100-watt bulb gives more light than a
60-watt bulb. We also know that when we pay our bills to the electric utility companies, we
are paying for the electric energy consumed over a certain period of time. Thus power and
energy calculations are important in circuit analysis.
Power is an indication of how much work (the conversion of energy from one form to another)
can be done in a specified amount of time, that is, a rate of doing work. For instance, a large
motor has more power than a small motor because it can convert more electrical energy into
mechanical energy in the same period of time. Since converted energy is measured in joules
(J) and time in seconds (s), power is measured in joules/second (J/s). The electrical unit of
measurement for power is the watt (W)

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To relate power and energy to voltage and current, we recall from physics that:
Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts (W).
We write this relationship as:
Where p is power in watts (W), w is energy in joules (J), and t is time in
seconds (s).
The power delivered to, or absorbed by, an electrical device or system can be found in terms
of the current and voltage

But
So that
The power absorbed or supplied by an element is the product of the voltage across the element
and the current through it. If the power has a + sign, power is being delivered to or absorbed
by the element. If, on the other hand, the power has a - sign, power is being supplied by the
element. But how do we know when the power has a negative or a positive sign?
Current direction and voltage polarity play a major role in
determining the sign of power. It is therefore important that
we pay attention to the relationship between current i and
voltage v in Fig. 1.5(a). The voltage polarity and current
direction must conform to those shown in Fig. 1.5(a) in order
for the power to have a positive sign. This is known as the
passive sign convention. By the passive sign convention,
current enters through the positive polarity of the voltage. In
this case, p = +vi or vi > 0 implies that the element is
absorbing power. However, if p = −vi or vi < 0, as in Fig. Figure 1.5. Reference polarities for
power using the passive sign convention:
1.5(b), the element is releasing or supplying power. (a) Absorbing power,
(b) Supplying power.

Passive sign convention is satisfied when the current enters through the positive terminal of
an element and p = +vi. If the current enters through the negative terminal, p = −vi.

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For example, the element in both circuits of Fig. 1.6 has an absorbing power of +12 W because
a positive current enters the positive terminal in both cases. In Fig. 1.7, however, the element
is supplying power of −12Wbecause a positive current enters the negative terminal.

Figure 1.6. Two cases of an element with an Figure 1.7. Two cases of an element with an
absorbing power of 12 W: absorbing power of 12 W:
(a) P = 4 × 3 = 12 W, (a) P = 4 × 3 = 12 W,
(b) P = 4 × 3 = 12 W (b) P = 4 × 3 = 12 W

In fact, the law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in any electric circuit. For this reason,
the algebraic sum of power in a circuit, at any instant of time, must be zero:

Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules ( J).The electric power utility
companies measure energy in watt-hours (Wh), where 1 Wh = 3,600 J

Good to know: The kilowatthour meter is an instrument for measuring the energy supplied to the
residential or commercial user of electricity. It is normally connected directly to the lines at a point just
prior to entering the power distribution panel of the building.

1.6. BASIC CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

As we discussed in the previous Section, an element is the basic building block of a circuit.
An electric circuit is simply an interconnection of the elements. Circuit analysis is the process
of determining voltages across (or the currents through) the elements of the circuit.
There are two types of elements found in electric circuits: passive elements and active
elements. An active element is capable of generating energy while a passive element is not.
Examples of passive elements are resistors, capacitors, and inductors. Typical active elements

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include generators, batteries, and operational amplifiers. Our aim in this section is to gain
familiarity with some important active elements.
1.6.1. ENERGY RESOURCES
The most important active elements are voltage or current sources that generally deliver power
to the circuit connected to them. There are two kinds of sources: independent and dependent
sources.
An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a specified voltage or
current that is completely independent of other circuit variables.

Figure 1.8. Symbols for independent Figure 1.9. Symbol for independent
voltage sources: current source. The arrow indicates the
(A) Used for constant or time-varying voltage, direction of current i.
(B) Used for constant voltage (dc).

An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in which the source quantity
is controlled by another voltage or current.
Dependent sources are usually designated by diamond-shaped symbols, as shown in Fig. 1.10.
Since the control of the dependent source is achieved by a voltage or current of some other
element in the circuit, and the source can be voltage
or current, it follows that there are four possible
types of dependent sources, namely:
1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).
2. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).
3. A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).
4. A current-controlled current source (CCCS).

Figure 1.10. Symbols for:

(a) Dependent voltage source,
(b) Dependent current source.

Dependent sources are useful in modeling elements such as transistors, operational

amplifiers and integrated circuits.
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An example of a current controlled voltage source is
shown on the right-hand side of Fig. 1.11, where the
voltage 10i of the voltage source depends on the
current i through element C. you might be surprised
that the value of the dependent voltage source is 10i
V (and not 10i A) because it is a voltage source. The
key idea to keep in mind is that a voltage source
comes with polarities (+ −) in its symbol, while a Figure 1.11. Symbol for independent
current source comes with an arrow, irrespective of current source. The arrow indicates the
direction of current i.
what it depends on.
1.6.2. RESISTANCE
Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the flow of electric charge.
This physical property, or ability to resist current, is known as resistance and is represented
by the symbol R.
The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area is determined by the
following four factors:
 Material type
 Length of the material
 Cross-sectional area
 Temperature of the surrounding

The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area A depends on A and its
length l, as shown in Fig. 1.12(a). In mathematical form,

Where ρ is known as the resistivity of the material in ohm-meters. Good conductors, such as
copper and aluminum, have low resistivities, while insulators, such as mica and paper, have
high resistivities. Table 1.1 presents the values of ρ for some common materials and shows
which materials are used for conductors, insulators, and semiconductors .
TABLE 1.1 Resistivities of common materials.

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 The circuit element used to model the current-resisting
behavior of a material is the resistor. The circuit symbol
for the resistor is shown in Fig. 1.12(b), where R stands
for the resistance of the resistor. The resistor is the
simplest passive element. The unit of measurement of
resistance is the ohm, for which the symbol is Ω.

Figure 1.12. (a) Resistor,

(b) Circuit symbol for resistance.

1.6.3. CAPACITANCE

A capacitor is a circuit component designed to store electrical charge. If you connect a dc

voltage source to a capacitor, for example, the capacitor will “charge” to the voltage of the
source. If you then disconnect the source, the capacitor will remain charged, i.e., its voltage
will remain constant at the value to which it had risen while connected to the source.

Capacitance is the electrical property of capacitors: it is a measure of how much charge a

capacitor can hold.

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by an insulator. One of its basic forms is the
parallel-plate capacitor shown in Figure 1.13. It consists of two metal plates separated by a
non-conducting material (i.e., an insulator) called a dielectric. The dielectric may be air, oil,
mica, plastic, ceramic, or other suitable insulating material.

Figure 1.13: capacitor (a) basic construction (b) symbol

The amount of charge Q that a capacitor can store depends on the applied voltage. Experiments
show that for a given capacitor, Q is proportional to voltage. Let the constant of proportionality
be C. Then from figure 1.14
Rearranging terms yields

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The term C is defined as the capacitance of the capacitor. As indicated, its unit is the farad.
By definition, the capacitance of a capacitor is one farad if it stores one coulomb of charge
when the voltage across its terminals is one volt.

Figure 1.14. 

Capacitor after charging. When the source is
disconnected, electrons are trapped on the
bottom plate. Thus, charge is stored.

Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is directly proportional to plate area, inversely

proportional to plate separation, and dependent on the dielectric. In equation form,

Where area A is in square meters and spacing d is in meters. The constant 𝜖 is the absolute
dielectric constant of the insulating material. Its units are farads per meter (F/m). For air or
vacuum, 𝜖 has a value of 𝜖𝜊 =8.85 x 10 -12 F/m. For other materials, 𝜖 is expressed as the
product of the relative dielectric constant, 𝜖𝑟 (shown in Table 1.2), times 𝜖𝜊 That is,

TABLE 1.2 Relative Dielectric Constants (Also Called Relative Permittivities)

1.6.4. INDUCTANCE
Self-inductance (usually just called inductance) is a circuit property that is due entirely to the
magnetic field created by current in a circuit. The effect that inductance has on circuit
operation is to oppose any change in current.
A circuit element built to possess inductance is called an inductor. In its simplest form an
inductor is simply a coil of wire, Figure 1.15(a). Ideally, inductors have only inductance.
However, since they are made of wire, practical inductors also have some resistance.

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  On circuit diagrams and in equations, inductance is
represented by the letter L. Its circuit symbol is a coil as
shown in Figure 1.15(b). The unit of inductance is the
henry.

 Inductors are used in many places. In radios, they

are part of the tuning circuit that you adjust when
you select a station. In fluorescent lamps, they are
part of the ballast circuit that limits current when the
lamp is turned on; in power systems, they are part of
the protection circuitry used to control short-circuit
currents during fault conditions.
Figure 1.15: Inductance is due to the magnetic field
Created by an electric current
(a) Basic indictor coil
(b) Inductor symbol

By definition, the inductance of a coil is one henry if the voltage created by its changing current
is one volt when its current changes at the rate of one ampere per second.

1.7. ELECTRICA CIRCIUT BASIC LAWS

The previous sections introduced basic concepts such as current, voltage, and power in an
electric circuit. To actually determine the values of these variables in a given circuit requires
that we understand some fundamental laws that govern electric circuits. These laws, known as
Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws, form the foundation upon which electric circuit analysis is
built.
In this section, in addition to these laws, we shall discuss some techniques commonly applied
in circuit design and analysis. These techniques include combining resistors in series or
parallel, voltage division and current division. The application of these laws and techniques
will be restricted to resistive circuits in this chapter.

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COMMAN TERMS
Branch: A branch represents a single element such as a
voltage source, current source, or a resistor, capacitor and
inductor.
Node: A node is the point of connection between two or
more branches.
Path: if no nodes was encountered more than once, the set
of nodes and elements that we have passed through is
defined as path:
Loop: A loop is any closed path in a circuit. A loop is a
closed path formed by starting at a node, passing through
a set of nodes, and returning to the starting node without
passing through any node more than once.
1.7.1. OHM’S LAW
Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854), a German physicist, is credited with finding the relationship
between current and voltage for a resistor. This relationship is known as Ohm’s law.
Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly proportional to the current i
flowing through the resistor.

That is,

Ohm defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be the resistance, R Thus, the
above proportionality becomes

 Which is the mathematical form of Ohm’s law.

R in the above equation is measured in the unit of ohms, designated, Ω. Thus,

The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric current; it is
measured in ohms (Ω).
R=V/I

The value of R can range from zero to infinity, it is important that we consider the two extreme
possible values of R. An element with R = 0 is called a short circuit, as shown in Fig. 1.16(a).
For a short circuit, showing that the voltage is zero but the current could be anything.

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 A short circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching zero. In practice, a short
circuit is usually a connecting wire assumed to be a perfect conductor.

Similarly, an element with R =∞ is known as an open circuit, as shown in Fig. 1.16(b). For
an open circuit, indicating that the current is zero though the voltage could be anything.

An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching infinity.

Figure 1.16. 

(a) Short circuit (R = 0),
(b) Open circuit (R =∞).

A useful quantity in circuit analysis is the reciprocal of resistance R, known as conductance

and denoted by G:

Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current; it is measured in mhos

( ℧) or Siemens (S).

The power dissipated by a resistor can be expressed in terms of R.

1.7.2. KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS

Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits. However, when it is coupled with
Kirchhoff’s two laws, we have a sufficient, powerful set of tools for analyzing a large variety
of electric circuits. Kirchhoff’s laws were first introduced in 1847 by the German physicist
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887). These laws are formally known as Kirchhoff’s current
law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or
a closed boundary) is zero.
A node is the point of connection between two or more branches or elements. And is usually
indicated by a dot in a circuit.
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Mathematically, KCL implies that

Where N is the number of branches connected to the node and in is the nth current entering (or
leaving) the node. By this law, currents entering a node may be regarded as positive, while
currents leaving the node may be taken as negative or vice versa.
In the other words KCL states that the sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the
sum of the currents leaving the node.

EXAMPLE 1.1

Determine the magnitude and correct direction of the

currents I3 and I5 for the network of figure 1.17

Figure 1.17: For example 1.1 to apply KCL

Solution:
Although points a and b are in fact the same node, we treat the points as two separate nodes
with 0 Ω resistance between them. Since Kirchhoff’s current law must be valid at point a, we
have the following expression for this node:

And so

Similarly, using Kirchhoff’s current law at point b gives

Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed
path (or loop) is zero. Or the applied voltage of a series circuit equals the sum of the voltage
drops across the series elements.

OR

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A loop is any closed path in a circuit. Or a closed loop is any continuous path that leaves a
point in one direction and returns to that same point from another direction without leaving
the circuit
To illustrate KVL, consider the circuit in Fig.1.18. The
sign on each voltage is the polarity of the terminal
encountered first as we travel around the loop. We can
start with any branch and go around the loop either
clockwise or counterclockwise. Suppose we start with the
voltage source and go clockwise around the loop as
shown; then voltages would be −v1,+v2,+v3,−v4, and +v5, in
that order Thus, KVL yields
Figure 1.18: A single-loop circuit illustrating KVL

Rearranging terms gives

Which may be interpreted as:

EXAMPLE 1.2
For the circuit in Fig. 1.19, find voltages v1 and v2 by
applying the concept of KVL

Figure 1.19: for example 1.2 to apply KVL

Solution :
To find v1 and v2, we apply Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
Assume that current i flows through the loop as shown.
From Ohm’s law,

Applying KVL around the loop gives

Substituting V1 and V2, we obtain

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Therefor

The following to rules are based on KCLand KVL

 Current divider rule
 Voltage diviver rule
SERIES RESISTORS AND VOLTAGE DIVIER RULE
The need to combine resistors in series or in parallel occurs so frequently that it warrants
special attention. The process of combining the resistors is facilitated by combining two of
them at a time.
Two or more elements are in series if they are cascaded or connected sequentially and
consequently carry the same current.

With this in mind, consider the single-loop circuit of Fig.

1.20.and apply KVL.

Figure 1.20: circuit to apply voltage

divider rule

Applying ohm’s law to each of the resistors.

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Implying that the two resistors can be replaced by an equivalent resistor Req; that is,

The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series is the sum of the
individual resistances.
For N resistors in series then

The voltage across each resistor in figure 1.20 is then

----------------- This is called voltage divider rule

In general, if a voltage divider has N resistors (R1, R2... RN) in series with the source voltage
V, the nth resistor (Rn) will have a voltage drop of

PARALLEL RESISTORS AND CURRENT DIVDER RULE

Two or more elements are inparallelif they are connected to the same two nodes and
consequently have the same voltage across them

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Consider the circuit in Fig 1.21, where two resistors are connected in parallel and therefore
have the same voltage across them. From Ohm’s law,

Or

Figure 1.21: circuit to apply current

divider rule

Applying KCL at node a gives the total current i as

Where Req is the equivalent resistance of the resistors in parallel:

We can extend to the general case of a circuit with N resistors in parallel. The equivalent
resistance is,

Given the total current i entering node a in Fig. 1.21, how do we obtain current i1 and i2? We
know that the equivalent resistor has the same voltage, or

Therefore
---------this is called current divider rule

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SERIES AND PARALLEL INDEPENDENT SOURCES

1. Voltage source in series

Voltage sources can be connected in series to increase or decrease the total voltage applied
to a system. The net voltage is determined simply by summing the sources with the same
polarity and subtracting the total of the sources with the opposite. The net polarity is the
polarity of the larger sum.

2. Current source in parallel

If two or more current sources are in parallel, they may all be replaced by one current source
having the magnitude and direction of the resultant, which can be found by summing the
currents in one direction and subtracting the sum of the currents in the opposite direction.

Chapter two: fundamental of dc circuit analysis

2.1. METHODS OF ANALYSIS
Having understood the fundamental laws of circuit theory (Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws),
we are now prepared to apply these laws to develop three powerful techniques for circuit
analysis: nodal analysis, which is based on a systematic application of Kirchhoff’s current law
(KCL), mesh analysis, which is based on a systematic application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law
(KVL) and source transformation techniques. The three techniques are so important that this
chapter should be regarded as the most important in the book.
2.2.1.SOURCE TRANSFORMATION

A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source vs in series with a

resistor R by a current source is in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.

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 Figure 2.1: Transformation of independent sources.

The two circuits in Fig. (2.1) are equivalent—provided they have the same voltage-current
relation at terminals a-b.

Source transformation also applies to dependent sources, provided we carefully handle the
dependent variable. As shown in Fig. (2.2), a dependent voltage source in series with a resistor
can be transformed to a dependent current source in parallel with the resistor or vice versa.

Figure 2.2: Transformation of dependent sources.

We should keep the following points in mind when dealing with source transformation.
 The arrow of the current source is directed toward the positive terminal of the voltage source.
 Source transformation is not possible when R = 0, which is the case with an ideal voltage source.
Similarly, an ideal current source with R =∞
 A source transformation does not affect the remaining part of the circuit.

Example 2.1
Use source transformation to find vo in the circuit
shown in figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3: for example 2.1 to apply source transformation

Solution:
We first transform the current and voltage sources, then combining the 4 Ω and 2 Ω resistors
in series and transforming the 12-V voltage source. We now combine the 3 Ω and 6Ω resistors
in parallel to get 2Ω. We also combine the 2A and 4A current sources to get a 2A source.

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We use current division in Fig. (c) Above to get
And

2.2.2.NODAL ANALYSIS

It is a technique used to determine current and the voltage in a circuit elements by solving set
of equations that are formulated by applying KCL at the nodes of a circuit of the variables.
These equations are node voltages which are defined with respect to a common point (node )
also called Reference node in the circuit .the node voltage can be determine by solving
equations using any appropriate method : Gaussian elimination or Cramer’s rule
Nodal analysis provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits using node voltages as the
circuit variables given a circuit with n nodes without voltage sources, the nodal analysis of the
circuit involves taking the following steps.
 Step1: Select one node as reference node usually the node with the largest number of
voltage source or components connected to it.
 Step2: Number the remaining N-1 nodes sequentially
 Step3: Identify a node voltage at each node except the reference node and a current
with every element in the circuit
 Step4: If the circuit contains only independent current, write N-1 linearly independent
simultaneous equations using KCL.
 Step5: If the circuit contains an independent voltage source, as supper-node enclosing
these source is created and a constraint equations for this source is written in addition
to the KCL equation for the supper-node and the remaining non-reference node.
 Step6: If the circuit contains a dependent source, treat the dependent source as though
it were an independent source, when writing the N-1 independent node equations and
then write one additional equation for the controlling parameter of dependent source.
 Step7: Solve the equations for the node voltages of your interest.

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 EXAMPLE 2.2

Calculate the node voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.4(a).

Solution:
Consider Fig. 2.4(b), where the circuit in Fig. 2.4(a) has been
prepared for nodal analysis. Notice how the currents are selected for
the application of KCL. Except for the branches with current
sources, the labeling of the currents is arbitrary but consistent. (By
consistent, we mean that if, for example, we assume that i2 enters
the 4Ω resistor from the left-hand side, i2 must leave the resistor
from the right-hand side.) The reference node is selected, and the
node voltages v1 and v2 are now to be determined.
At node 1, applying KCL and Ohm’s law gives

 Equ (1)
At node 2, we do the same thing and get

Figure 2.4: For Example 2.2: (a) original circuit

(b) Circuit for analysis

Rearranging the above equation gives

Equ (2)

Now we have two simultaneous Equ (1) and Equ (2). We can solve the equations using any
method (elimination technique, Cramer’s rule or a mat lab software package) and obtain the
values of v1 and v2.
METHOD 1: Using the elimination technique, we add Equ. (1) and (2).

Substituting v2 = 20 in Equ. (1) Gives

METODE 2: To use Cramer’s rule, we need to put Equ. (1) and Equ.(2) in matrix form as

Page | 23
The determinant of the matrix is

We now obtain v1 and v2 as

If we need the currents, we can easily calculate them from the values of the nodal voltages.

2.2.3.NODAL ANALYSIS WITH VOLTAGE SOURCES

We now consider how voltage sources affect nodal analysis. We use the circuit in Fig. 2.5 for
illustration. Consider the following two possibilities.
CASE 1: If a voltage source is connected between
the reference node and a non-reference node, we
simply set the voltage at the no reference node
equal to the voltage of the voltage source. In Fig.
2.5, for example,

CASE 2: If the voltage source (dependent or

independent) is connected between two non-
reference nodes, the two non-reference nodes
form a generalized node or super-node; we
apply both KCL and KVL to determine the node Figure 2.5: circuit with super-node
voltages.

A super-node is formed by enclosing a (dependent or independent) voltage source

connected between two non-reference nodes and any elements connected in parallel with it.

2.2.4.MASH ANALYSIS
It is a technique used to determine the current and voltage in the circuit by solving set of
equations that are formulated by applying KVL across a loop. a loop is a closed path formed
by passing through an ordered sequence of nodes without passing through any node more than
once. If the loop doesn’t enclose any other loop, it is called a mesh. The variable in this
Page | 24
technique are mesh currents which are currents associated with each mesh in assigned direction
(usually clockwise direction ) .Mesh analysis provides another general procedure for analyzing
circuits, using mesh currents as the circuit variables.
Mesh analysis is also known as loop analysis or the mesh-current method. A mesh is a
loop which does not contain any other loops within it.
In the mesh analysis of a circuit with n meshes, we take the following three steps.
1. Label N loop current for N meshes (distinct closed path) through the network.
2. If the circuit contains only independent voltage source ,write linearly independent
simultaneous equations using KVL .determine the N unknown loop current
3. If the circuit contains an independent current source a constraint equations is written for
the current that flows through it. The current source is then replaced by an open circuit
and another equation is written for the newly created loop.
4. If the circuit contains a dependent source, treat the dependent source as though it were
an independent source when writing N-loop equations and then write one additional
equation for the controlling parameter of the dependent source.
5. Solve the equation using any convenient method

In Fig. 2.6, for example, paths abefa and bcdeb are meshes, but path abcdefa is not a mesh.
The current through a mesh is known as mesh current. In mesh analysis, we are interested in
applying KVL to find the mesh currents in a given circuit.

Figure 2.6: circuit with two meshes

To illustrate the steps, consider the circuit in Fig. 2.6. The first step requires that mesh currents
i1 and i2 are assigned to meshes 1 and 2. Although a mesh current may be assigned to each mesh
in an arbitrary direction, it is conventional to assume that each mesh current flows clockwise.
As the second step, we apply KVL to each mesh. Applying KVL to mesh 1, we obtain

………………Equ (1)
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For mesh 2, applying KVL gives

……………..Equ (2)
The third step is to solve for the mesh currents. Putting Eqs. (1) and (2) in matrix form yields

EXAMPLE 2.3
For the circuit in Fig. 2.7, find the branch currents I1, I2, and I3 using mesh analysis

Solution:
We first obtain the mesh currents using KVL. For mesh 1,

------------------Equ (1)
For mesh 2,

Figure 3.7: circuit for example 2.3

--------Equ (2)

METHOD 1: Using the substitution method,

METHOD 2: use Cramer’s rule

Page | 26
2.3. CIRCUIT THEOREMS
2.3.1.INTRODUCTION
A major advantage of analyzing circuits using Kirchhoff’s laws as we did in the previous
sections are that we can analyze a circuit without tampering with its original configuration. A
major disadvantage of this approach is that, for a large, complex circuit, tedious computation
is involved.
The growth in areas of application of electric circuits has led to an evolution from simple to
complex circuits. To handle the complexity, engineers over the years have developed some
theorems to simplify circuit analysis. Such theorems include Thevenin’s and Norton’s
theorems. In addition to circuit theorems, we discuss the concepts of superposition, star-delta
transformation, and maximum power transfer in this section.
2.3.2.SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
If a circuit has two or more independent sources, one way to determine the value of a specific
variable (voltage or current) is to use nodal or mesh analysis as in the previous sections.
Another way is to determine the contribution of each independent source to the variable and
then add them up. The latter approach is known as the superposition.
The idea of superposition rests on the linearity property.
A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or directly proportional) to its input.

Figure 4.8: A linear circuit with input vs and output i.

The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through) an element in
a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that element
due to each independent source acting alone.
We apply the superposition principle in three steps:

Page | 27
EXAMPLE 2.4

Use the superposition theorem to find v in the circuit in Fig. 2.9.

Solution:
Since there are two sources, let v = v1 + v2 , where v1 and v2 are
the contributions due to the 6-V voltage source and the 3-A
current source, respectively.

Figure 5.9: for example 2.4

To obtain v1, we set the current source to zero, then Applying KVL to the loop

To get v2, we set the voltage source to zero. Using current division,

Hence,

And we find

Page | 28
2.3.3.THEVENIN’S THEOREM
According to Thevenin’s theorem, the linear circuit
in Fig. 2.10(a) can be replaced by that in Fig.
2.10(b). (The load in Fig. 2.10 may be a single
resistor or another circuit.) The circuit to the left of
the terminals a-b in Fig. 2.10(b) is known as the
Thevenin equivalent circuit; it was developed in
1883 by M. Leon Thevenin (1857–1926), a French
telegraph engineer.

Figure 6.10: Replacing a linear two-terminal circuit by

its Thevenin equivalent: (a) original circuit,
(b) Thevenin equivalent circuit.

Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an

equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is
the open circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned off.

EXAMPLE 2.5

Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit

shown in Fig. 2.11, to the left of the terminals a-b. Then
find the current through RL =6, 16, 36 Ω.

Figure 7.11: for example 2.5

.

Solution:
We find RTh by turning off the 32V voltage source (replacing it with a short circuit) and the 2A
current source (replacing it with an open circuit). The circuit becomes what is shown in Fig.
2.12(a). Thus,

Page | 29
 Figure 8.12: For Example 2.5: (a) finding RTh, (b) finding VTh.

To find VTh, consider the circuit in Fig. 2.12 (b). Applying mesh analysis to the two loops,

Solving for i1, we get i1 = 0.5 A. Thus,

The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.13.

The current through RL is

Figure 9.13: The Thevenin equivalent circuit for example 2.5

2.3.4.NORTON’S THEOREM

Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN, where IN is the short-
circuit current through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned off.
We find RN in the same way we find RTh. In fact, from what we know about source
transformation, the Thevenin and Norton resistances are equal; that is,

Page | 30
 Figure 10.13: (a) Original circuit, (b) Norton equivalent circuit

To find the Norton current IN, we determine the short circuit current flowing from terminal a
to b in circuit Fig. 4.37.

Figure 11.13: Finding Norton current IN.

EXAMPLE 2.6

Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the circuit

shown.
Answer:

2.3.5.MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to provide power to a load. Therefor
Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the maximum power a linear circuit can deliver to a
load. We assume that we can adjust the load
resistance RL. If the entire circuit is replaced by its
Thevenin equivalent except for the load, as shown in
Fig. 2.14, the power delivered to the load is

Figure 12.14: The circuit used for maximum power transfer.

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 Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals the Thevenin
resistance as seen from the load (RL = RTh).
The maximum power transferred is then obtained by substituting the load resistance RL by the
Thevenin resistance (RTH).

Example 2.7
Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the circuit shown below.
Also find the maximum power.

Solution:
First we need to find the Thevenin resistance RTh and the Thevenin voltage VTh across the
terminals a-b.

To get VTh, Applying mesh analysis

Solving for i1, we get i1 =−2/3A. Applying KVL around the outer loop to get VTh across terminals
a-b, we obtain

Page | 32
For maximum power transfer,

And the maximum power is

Page | 33
 Chapter 3 Transient Response
3.1. INTRODUCTION
Analysis of behaviors of electrical circuit reveals that as soon as a circuit is switched from one
condition to another either by change of source or by alteration of a circuit elements, branch
currents and voltages drops, changes from their initial values to new values .These changes
take a short spell of time to settle to a permanent values (steady state) till further switching or
circuit alteration is attempted .This brief spell of time is called transient time.
And the value of the variables (current and voltage drops) during this period is called transient
value.
3.2. RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS
→Consider the RC circuit shown below in fig.3.1 (a)

( a) (b)
Figure 3.1 a) RC circuit with switch open
b) RC circuit with switch close to apply KVL

Apply KVL after the switch in circuit fig.3.1 (a) is closed as shown in circuit fig. 3.1(b)
𝑽𝒔 (𝒕) = 𝒊(𝒕)𝑹 + 𝒖(𝒕)
The v-i characteristics of a capacitor is given as
𝐶𝑑𝑢(𝑡)
𝑖(𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡

𝑹𝑪𝒅𝒖(𝒕)
Therefore 𝑽𝒔 (𝒕) = + 𝒖(𝒕)------------------------------------------------------------- (1)
𝒅𝒕

Where 𝑉𝑠 (𝑡) −→ is the input source.

𝑢(𝑡) −→is the response of the circuit.

Page | 1
→ Consider again RL circuit as shown below

Applying KVL

𝑽𝒔 = 𝑽𝑹 + 𝑽𝑳 .

But v-i characteristics of an inductor is given as

𝑳𝒅𝒊(𝒕)
𝑽𝑳 =
𝒅𝒕
𝑳𝒅𝒊(𝒕)
There for 𝑽𝒔 = 𝒊(𝒕)𝑹 + ------------------------------- (2)
𝒅𝒕

Both equations (1) and (2) are first order differential equations, this implies that any circuit
containing a single capacitor or inductor and linear resistors and a source is a first order
circuit.

The differential equations resulting from analyzing RC and RL circuits are of the first order.
Hence, the circuits are collectively known as first-order circuits.
A first-order circuit is characterized by a first-order differential equation.
Response of first order circuit is found by solving the circuit first order differential equation
The response of first order circuits depends on three factors.

i. The input driving the circuit ,Vs(t)

ii. The values of the circuit parameters ,i.e. R&L or R& C
iii. The value of the response at t=0 ( the initial conditions )

The 3rd factor relate to the initial energy stored in the circuit .The initial energy can cause the
circuit to have a nonzero response even the input Vs (t) =0 for t≥0.

There are two ways to excite the first order circuits.

1. Zero-input (source free ) excitation : by initial conditions of the storage elements in
the circuits(capacitor or inductor)
2. Step excitation: by applying dc independent sources.

Page | 2
 1. ZERO-INPUT (SOURECE FREE) RESPONSE
The response of RC and RL circuit, if the input is zero is called zero-input response or
natural response.
The natural response of a circuit refers to the behavior (in terms of voltages and currents)
of the circuit itself, with no external sources of excitation.

Consider the RC circuit in figure 3.1(b) with the input source is zero, Vs (t) =0,
𝑹𝑪𝒅𝒖(𝒕)
 + 𝒖(𝒕) = 𝟎 which is a homogeneous equations ,
𝒅𝒕
 the solution for homogenous first order differential equations has a form
𝒖(𝒕) = 𝒌𝒆−𝒕/𝝉 Substituting into the homogenous differential equation above.
𝑡 𝑡
𝑑
Therefor 𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑡
{𝑘𝑒 −𝜏 } + 𝑘𝑒 −𝜏 =0

𝑅𝐶 −𝑡 −
𝑡
− 𝑘𝑒 𝜏 + 𝑘𝑒 = 0
𝜏
𝜏
𝑡 𝑅𝐶
𝑘𝑒 −𝜏 (1 − ) = 0 => 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶
𝜏
𝝉 = 𝑹𝑪
𝜏 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝐶 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡

The value of K for the source free response, 𝒖(𝒕) = 𝒌𝒆−𝒕/𝝉 is determined using the value of
u (t) at t=0 (i.e. initial conditions). Since the capacitor is initially charged, we can assume that
at time t =0, the initial voltage (response) is
𝟎
−
𝒖(𝟎) = 𝒌𝒆 𝝉 = 𝑽𝒐 = 𝑲
Hence the final form of the zero input response or the natural response of RC circuit will be

𝒖(𝒕) = 𝑽𝒐 𝒆−𝒕/𝝉

Page | 3
 Thus at t=0, lim 𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑜
𝑡→0
t=∞ lim 𝑢(𝑡) = 0
𝑡→∞

Figure 3.2: The voltage response of the RC circuit.

THE KEY TO WORK WITH A SOURCE-FREE (NATURAL RESPONSE) OF AN RC CIRCUIT IS;

a. finding the initial voltage across the capacitor ,VC (0) =V0
b. Determining the time constant τ.
c. The capacitor is an open circuit to dc source.
Example 3.1
The switch in this circuit has been closed for a long time,
and it is opened at t =0. Find v(t) for t ≥0. Calculate the
initial energy stored in the capacitor

Solution:
For t<0 (before switching):
The switch is closed; the capacitor is an open circuit to dc

Using voltage division

9 ∗ 20
𝑉𝑐(0) = = 15𝑣, 𝑡 < 0
3+9

Page | 4
 For t≥0 (after switching):
The switch is opened, and we have source free RC circuit shown below
The 1Ω and 9Ω resistors in series give

The time constant is

Thus, the voltage across the capacitor for t ≥0 is

=

→ The initial energy stored in the capacitor is

Similarly the zero-input response of the RL circuit is given as

𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑰𝒐 𝒆−𝒕/𝝉
𝑹𝒕
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑰𝒐 𝒆− 𝑳
i (0)=I0
i(∞)=0
𝑳
` 𝝉 = − −> 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝐿 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
𝑹

Figure 3.3: The current response of the RL circuit

THE KEY TO WORK WITH A SOURCE-FREE (NATURAL RESPONSE) OF AN RC CIRCUIT IS;

a. finding the initial current through the inductor, iL (0) =I0
b. Determining the time constant τ.
c. The inductor is a short circuit to dc source.

Page | 5
Example 3.2

The switch in this circuit has been closed for a

long time. At t =0, the switch is opened.
Calculate i(t) for t>0.

Solution:
For t<0 (before switching):
The switch is closed, and the inductor acts as a short circuit to dc. The 16Ω resistor is short-
circuited; the resulting circuit is shown below,
To get i1 we combine the 4Ω and 12Ω resistors in
parallel

Hence,

We obtain i(t) from i1 using current division, by writing

Therefore 𝒊(𝟎) = 𝟔𝑨 , 𝒕 < 𝟎

For t≥0 (after switching):

The switch is open and the voltage source is disconnected. We now have a source free RL
circuit shown below,
→Combining the resistors, we have

→the time constant for RL circuit is

→Therefore i(t) for t≥0 is,

Page | 6
 2. STEP RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER CIRCUIT
When the input to the first order circuit is a step function that is in the form shown below then
the response is called step response.

𝑜 ,𝑡 < 𝑜
𝑉𝑠 (𝑡) = {𝑉 , 𝑡 ≥ 𝑜 ---step function form ….graph for step function
𝐴

The step response of a circuit is its behavior when the excitation is the step function, which
may be a voltage or a current source.

 Consider the RC circuit show below ;

The circuit differential equation will be

𝑹𝑪𝒅𝒖(𝒕)
+ 𝒖(𝒕) = 𝑽𝑨
𝒅𝒕

The solution for the above differential equation can be divided into two components;
𝒖(𝒕) = 𝒖𝑵 (𝒕) + 𝒖𝒇 (𝒕)
Where;
≫ 𝒖𝑵 (𝒕) is natural response or transient response, which is a general solution obtained when
the input is set to zero.
≫𝒖𝒇 (𝒕) is forced response or steady-state response, which is a particular solution of the
differential equation when the input is step function.
The natural response or transient response is the circuit’s temporary response that will die
out with time.

The forced response or steady-state response is the behavior of the circuit a long time after
an external excitation is applied

Page | 7
≫ for natural response, set the input to zero, VA=0,
𝑹𝑪𝒅𝒖(𝒕)
+ 𝒖(𝒕) = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕
As the above equation is a homogenous differential equation, the natural response takes the
form 𝒖𝑵 (𝒕) = 𝑲𝒆−𝒕/𝑹𝑪 for t≥0,
Where K is a constant to be determined from the initial condition of the total response (natural
+ forced).

≫ the forced response is a particular solution of the equation, with input set to VA
𝑹𝑪𝒅𝒖𝒇 (𝒕)
+ 𝒖𝒇 (𝒕) = 𝑽𝑨
𝒅𝒕
The particular solution for the above equation is 𝒖𝒇 (𝒕) = 𝑽𝑨 ,
Hence the total response of the circuit will be;
𝒖(𝒕) = 𝒖𝑵 (𝒕) + 𝒖𝒇 (𝒕)  𝒖(𝒕) = 𝑲𝒆−𝒕/𝑹𝑪 + 𝑽𝑨
The constant K can be evaluated using the initial condition,
𝑢(0) = 𝑉0 = 𝐾𝑒 0 + 𝑉𝐴
𝑉0 = 𝐾 + 𝑉𝐴
𝑲 = 𝑽𝟎 − 𝑽𝑨
𝒕
∴ 𝒖(𝒕) = (𝑽𝟎 − 𝑽𝑨 )𝒆−𝑹𝑪 + 𝑽𝑨 , 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎

The complete step response of the RC circuit to a sudden application of a dc voltage source,
assuming the capacitor is initially charged is then;
𝑽𝒐 ,𝒕 < 𝟎
𝒖(𝒕) = { 𝒕 ,
(𝑽𝟎 − 𝑽𝑨 )𝒆−𝑹𝑪 + 𝑽𝑨 ,𝒕 ≥ 𝟎

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒖(𝒕) = 𝑽𝟎 , 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒖(𝒕) = 𝑽𝑨

𝒕→𝟎 𝒕→∞

Figure 3.4; step response of an RC circuit

Page | 8
Following the same procedure to determine the step response of an RL circuit, the total
response will be;
𝑹𝒕
𝒊(𝒕) = (𝑰𝟎 − 𝑰𝑨 )𝒆− 𝑳 + 𝑰𝑨 , 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑰𝟎 , 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑰𝑨

𝒕→𝟎 𝒕→∞

Figure 3.5; step response of an RL circuit

The step response of an RC or RL circuit can be rearranged in the following way;

RC circuit;

RL circuit;

Where zero-input response ,the response when Vs(t)=0,and zero-state response is the response
that occurs when the initial state of the circuit is zero( Vo=0,Io=0).
INITIAL AND FINAL VALUE CONDITIONS:
The first order step response of an RC and RL circuits shows that for t≥0, the state variable
response can be written in the form;
𝒕
RC circuit: 𝒖(𝒕) = {𝒖(𝟎) − 𝒖(∞)}𝒆−𝑹𝑪 + 𝒖(∞)
𝒕
RL circuit; 𝒊(𝒕) = {𝒊(𝟎) − 𝒊(∞)}𝒆−𝑹𝑳 + 𝒊(∞)
Where 𝒖(𝟎)= Vo and 𝒖(∞)=VA
𝒊(𝟎) = 𝑰𝒐 And 𝒊(∞)=IA

In both circuit the step response have the general form of;

𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒕 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆

−
[𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒑 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒆] = [ 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆 − 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆 ] 𝒆 𝝉 + [ 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆 ]
𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆

Page | 9
The state variable response in switched dynamic circuits is found using the following steps
i. find the initial value by applying DC analysis to the configuration for t<0 , V0
ii. find the final value by applying DC analysis to the configuration for t≥0,  VA
iii. find the time constant of the circuit configuration for t≥0
iv. Write the step response directly using the above general formula without formulating
and solving the differential equations.
Must to know;
1. To find the step response of an RC circuit requires three things:
a. The initial capacitor voltage u(0)=Vo, t<0
b. The final capacitor voltage u(∞)=VA , t≥0
c. The time constant τ.
2. To find the step response of an RL circuit requires three things:
a. The initial inductor current i(0)=Io, t<0
b. The final inductor current i(∞)=IA , t≥0
c. The time constant τ.
Example3.3
The switch shown in the circuit below has been in position A for a long time. At t =0, the
switch moves to B. Determine v(t) for t≥0 and calculate its value at t =1s and 4s.

Solution;
For t<0 (before switching);
The switch is at position A, disconnect the 30V dc source and capacitor is open circuit for the
24V dc source as shown below,

Page | 10
The voltage across the capacitor just before t =0 is obtained by voltage division as
𝟓𝒌𝒙𝟐𝟒
𝑽𝒄(𝟎) = = 𝟏𝟓𝑽 , 𝒕 < 𝟎
𝟓𝒌 + 𝟑𝒌
For t≥0 (after switching);
The switch is at position B, disconnect the 24V dc source and capacitor is open circuit for the
30V dc source as shown below,
→The equivalent resistance connected to the capacitor is
Req=4kΩ
→ The time constant is
𝝉 = 𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝑪=

Since the capacitor acts like an open circuit to dc at steady state, Vc(∞)=30V

Thus,

Exercise
Find i(t) in the circuit shown below for t>0. Assume that the switch has been closed for a long
time.

Page | 11
3.3. RESPONSE OF SECOND ORDER CIRCUITS
In the previous sections we considered circuits with a single storage element (a capacitor or an
inductor). Such circuits are first-order because the differential equations describing them are
first-order. In this section we will consider circuits containing two storage elements. These are
known as second-order circuits because their responses are described by differential equations
that contain second derivatives.
Typical examples of second-order circuits are RLC circuits, in which the three kinds of passive
elements are present. Examples of such circuits are shown in Fig. 3.5 below,

Figure 3.5: Typical examples of second-order circuits:

(a) Series RLC circuit, (b) parallel RLC circuit,

A second-order circuit is characterized by a second-order differential equation. It consists

of resistors and the equivalent of two energy storage elements

3.3.1. PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT

Consider the parallel RLC circuit given below,
Apply KCL 𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝑖𝑅 + 𝑖𝐿
𝐶𝑑𝑉𝑐 𝐿𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝐿𝐶𝑑 2 𝑖𝐿
𝑖𝑐 (𝑡) = , 𝑉𝐿 = = 𝑉𝑐 , ∴ 𝑖𝑐 (𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑉(𝑡) 𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝐿
From ohm’s 𝑖𝑅 = =
𝑅 𝑅 𝑑𝑡

𝐿𝐶𝑑 2 𝑖𝐿 𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝐿
+ + 𝑖𝐿 = 𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) -----------Second order differential equation.
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡=0) 𝑉(0)
𝑖𝐿 (0) = 𝐼0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = …………initial conditions
𝑑𝑡 𝐿

Page | 12
Natural response
𝐿𝐶𝑑 2 𝑖𝐿 𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝐿
+ + 𝑖𝐿 = 0,----------------homogenous second order differential equation
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑅 𝑑𝑡

𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) = 𝐾𝑒 𝑠𝑡

𝐿𝐶𝑑 2 𝐿 𝑑
Therefore {𝐾𝑒 𝑠𝑡 } + {𝐾𝑒 𝑠𝑡 } + {𝐾𝑒 𝑠𝑡 } = 0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝐿 1
𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 + 𝑠 + 1 = 0, 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐺 = 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅 𝑅

Then 𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 + 𝐺𝐿𝑠 + 1 = 0 − − − 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎

−𝐺𝐿 ± √(𝐺𝐿)2 − 4𝐿𝐶

𝑠1 , 𝑠2 =
2𝐿𝐶
Therefor the natural response have the following form based on three cases
Case1: if (𝐺𝐿)2 − 4𝐿𝐶 >0, it has unequal two real roots s1 and s2
∴ 𝒊𝑳 (𝒕) = 𝑲𝟏 𝒆𝒔𝟏𝒕 + 𝑲𝟐 𝒆𝒔𝟐𝒕
Case2: if (𝐺𝐿)2 − 4𝐿𝐶=0, two equal and real roots s= s1 = s2
∴ 𝒊𝑳 (𝒕) = (𝑲𝟏 + 𝑲𝟐 )𝒆𝒔𝒕
Case3: (𝐺𝐿)2 − 4𝐿𝐶<0, 𝑠1 = −𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 , 𝑠2 = −𝛼 − 𝑗𝛽
∴ 𝒊𝑳 (𝒕) = 𝑲𝟏 𝒆−𝜶𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒕 + 𝑲𝟐 𝒆−𝜶𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒕

≫ Generally the response for second order circuit will have two components
Let us say the general second order differential equation for any RLC circuit is;
𝒅𝟐 𝒚(𝒕) 𝒅𝒚(𝒕)
𝒂𝟐 + 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟎𝒚(𝒕) = 𝑨
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕
Where y (t) is a voltage or a current ,a2,a1,ao are constant coefficients
A is constant input (step function)
Therefor the two components of the response are;
𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒚𝑵 (𝒕) + 𝒚𝑭 (𝒕)

Page | 13
Where:
𝑨
≫ 𝒚𝑭 (𝒕) = , 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 or the particular solution
𝒂𝟎

≫ 𝒚𝑵 (𝒕) is a natural response which is obtained by solving the above general equation by
setting the input to zero (A=0)
𝒅𝟐 𝒚(𝒕) 𝒅𝒚(𝒕)
𝒂𝟐 + 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟎𝒚(𝒕) = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕
↓
𝒅𝟐 𝒚(𝒕) 𝒅𝒚(𝒕)
𝟐
+ 𝟐𝜺𝟏 𝝎 𝟎 + 𝝎𝟎 𝟐 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
↓
𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐𝜺𝟏 𝝎𝟎 𝒔 + 𝝎𝟎 𝟐 = 𝟎
In which:
𝒂𝟎
𝝎𝟎 𝟐 = , 𝝎𝟎 is called undamped natural frequency
𝒂𝟐
𝒂𝟏
𝟐𝜺𝟏 𝝎𝟎 = , 𝜺𝟏 is called exponential damping ratio
𝒂𝟐

So the general response is

𝑨
𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒚𝑵 (𝒕) + 𝒚𝑭 (𝒕) = 𝒚𝑵 (𝒕) +
𝒂𝟎

Damping characteristics of RLC circuit is determined by the damping ratio (𝜺𝟏 )

 𝜺𝟏 <1  under damped
 𝜺𝟏 =1critical damped
 𝜺𝟏 >1  over damped

Page | 14
Example 3.4.

Determine the numerical value of the circuit

damping ratio (𝜺𝟏 ) and the undamped natural
frequency 𝝎𝟎 for the circuit shown .and specify
whether the circuit is over damped, under damped,
critically damped.

Solution:
This circuit is a source free parallel RLC circuit, therefor the differential equation is,
𝐿𝐶𝑑 2 𝑖𝐿 𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝐿
+ + 𝑖𝐿 = 0,
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
The above homogenous differential equation is written in the form of
𝒅𝟐 𝒚(𝒕) 𝒅𝒚(𝒕)
𝒂𝟐 + 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟎𝒚(𝒕) = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕
𝑎2 = 𝐿𝐶 = 4𝑥10−3 𝑥0.1𝑥10−6 = 𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎
𝐿 4𝑥10−3
𝑎1 = = 3
= 𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟕 , 𝑎0 = 𝟏
𝑅 20𝑥10

Therefore

𝟏
𝝎𝟎 = √𝑎0 /𝑎2 = √( ) = 𝟓𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎
𝑎1
𝟐𝝎𝟎 𝜺𝟏 =
𝑎2
𝒂𝟏 𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟕
𝜺𝟏 = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓
𝟐𝝎𝟎 𝒂𝟐 𝟐𝒙𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒙𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎

Since, 𝜺𝟏 < 𝟏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒅 .

Page | 15
3.3.2. SERIES RLC CIRCUIT
Consider the series RLC circuit shown below
Apply KVL
Vs(t) = VR + VL + VC
𝐿𝑑𝑖
= 𝑖𝑅 + + 𝑉𝑐
𝑑𝑡
𝐶𝑑𝑉𝑐𝑅 𝐿𝐶𝑑 2 𝑉𝑐
= + + 𝑉𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
𝐿𝐶𝑑 2 𝑉𝑐 𝐶𝑑𝑉𝑐𝑅
= + + 𝑉𝑐
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

→ the above equation is linear second order differential equation with constant coefficients
and separate variable of Vc(t).
→ The initial condition of the second order D.E Vc(0)=Vo
𝑑𝑉𝑐(𝑡) 𝐼𝑜
( |𝑡 = 0) =
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑳𝑪𝒅𝟐 𝑽𝒄 𝑹𝑪𝒅𝑽𝒄
→ + + 𝑽𝒄 = 𝟎 ---- (1) Second order homogenous differential equation
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕

𝑽𝒄(𝒕) = 𝑲𝒆𝒔𝒕
𝐿𝐶𝑑 2 𝑑
→ {𝐾𝑒 𝑠𝑡 } + 𝑅𝐶 {𝐾𝑒 𝑠𝑡 } + {𝐾𝑒 𝑠𝑡 } = 0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

𝑳𝑪𝒔𝟐 + 𝑹𝑪𝒔 + 𝟏 = 𝟎 ==> 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐𝜺𝟏 𝝎𝟎 𝒔 + 𝝎𝟎 𝟐 = 𝟎

→ the above homogenous differential equation (1) can be rewrite in the form of,
𝒅𝟐 𝒚(𝒕) 𝒅𝒚(𝒕)
𝒂𝟐 + 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟎𝒚(𝒕) = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕
In which:
𝒂𝟐 = 𝑳𝑪, 𝒂𝟏 = 𝑹𝑪 , 𝒂𝟎 = 𝟏

𝒂𝟎
𝝎𝟎 𝟐 = , 𝝎𝟎 is called undamped natural frequency
𝒂𝟐
𝒂𝟏
𝟐𝜺𝟏 𝝎𝟎 = , 𝜺𝟏 is called exponential damping ratio
𝒂𝟐

Page | 16
 −𝑹𝑪±√(𝑹𝑪)𝟐 −𝟒𝑳𝑪
→ 𝒔𝟏 , 𝒔𝟐 =
𝟐𝑳𝑪

Case1: if (𝑅𝐶)2 − 4𝐿𝐶 >0, it has unequal two real roots s1 and s2
∴ 𝑽𝒄(𝒕) = 𝑲𝟏 𝒆𝒔𝟏𝒕 + 𝑲𝟐 𝒆𝒔𝟐𝒕
Case2: if (𝑅𝐶)2 − 4𝐿𝐶=0, two equal and real roots s= s1 = s2
∴ 𝑽𝒄(𝒕) = (𝑲𝟏 + 𝑲𝟐 )𝒆𝒔𝒕
Case3: (𝑅𝐶)2 − 4𝐿𝐶<0, 𝑠1 = −𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 , 𝑠2 = −𝛼 − 𝑗𝛽
∴ 𝑽𝒄(𝒕) = 𝑲𝟏 𝒆−𝜶𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒕 + 𝑲𝟐 𝒆−𝜶𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒕

Page | 17
 CHAPTER 4: STEADY STATE 1-∅ AC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
4.1. Introduction
Thus far our analysis has been limited for the most part to dc circuits: those circuits excited by
constant or time-invariant sources.
We now begin the analysis of circuits in which the source voltage or current is time-varying. In
this chapter, we are particularly interested in sinusoidally time-varying excitation, or simply,
excitation by a sinusoid.
A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function.
A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as alternating current (ac). Such a current reverses at
regular time intervals and has alternately positive and negative values. Circuits driven by
sinusoidal current or voltage sources are called ac circuits.

4.2. Sinusoidal and phasor

I. Sinusoids
Let us consider the following general expression for a sinusoidal forcing function
𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒙𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧⁡(𝝎𝒕 + 𝜽)
Where
𝑥𝑚 =the amplitude of the sinusoid which is the peak value of the current or voltage
𝜔=the angular frequency in radians/s
2𝜋
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = ⁡, T=period (in second) of the sinusoidal function and f=frequency in hertz (Hz)
𝑇

𝜔𝑡= the argument of the sinusoid measured in radians.

𝜃=phase angle in degree.

Figure 4-1: sketch of 𝑥𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) as a function of ωt.

As mentioned, the period T of the periodic function is the time of one complete cycle or the
number of seconds per cycle. The reciprocal of this quantity is the number of cycles per second,
known as the cyclic frequency f of the sinusoid. Thus,

Thus taking two sinusoidal functions with the same frequency and phase angle 𝜃, ∅ respectively,
then the phase shift between them will be the difference of the phase angles,
𝑥1(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑚1 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
𝑥2(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑚2 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒⁡𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 = 𝜃 − ∅

Example 1
Find the amplitude, phase, period, and frequency of the sinusoid

Given any periodic function x(t) with a period T ,the average (DC ) value of the function is given
as :
𝑻
𝟏 𝑻 𝟏 𝟐
𝒙𝒂𝒗 = ⁡𝒙𝑫𝑪 = ∫ 𝒙(𝒕)𝒅𝒕 = ∫ 𝒙(𝒕)𝒅𝒕
𝑻 𝟎 𝑻 −𝑻
𝟐

And the root mean square (rms) value also called effective value of the periodic function is:

𝟏 𝑻 𝟐
𝒙𝒓𝒎𝒔 = √ ∫ 𝒙 (𝒕)𝒅𝒕
𝑻 𝟎

For a sinusoidal signal of the form ⁡𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑚 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)

 𝟏 𝑻
𝒙𝒂𝒗 = ∫𝟎 𝒙𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧⁡(𝝎𝒕 + 𝜽)𝒅𝒕 = 𝟎 ----------------------------------------------------- Proof!
𝑻

𝟏 𝑻 𝒙𝒎
𝒙𝒓𝒎𝒔 = √ ∫𝟎 (𝒙𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧⁡(𝝎𝒕 + 𝜽))𝟐 (𝒕)𝒅𝒕 = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕𝒙𝒎 -------------------------- Proof!
𝑻 √𝟐

Therefore for a sinusoidal current and voltage sources

𝑣𝑎𝑣 = 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = 0
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
𝒗𝒓𝒎𝒔 = ⁡⁡𝒂𝒏𝒅⁡𝒊𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
√𝟐 √𝟐
II. Phasor
Sinusoids are easily expressed in terms of phasors, which are more convenient to work with sine
and cosine functions.
A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid.
Phasors provide a simple means of analyzing linear circuits excited by sinusoidal sources.
Before we completely define phasors and apply them to circuit analysis, we need to be thoroughly
familiar with complex numbers.
A complex number Z can be written in rectangular form as

Where⁡⁡𝑗 = √−1; x is the real part of Z; y is the imaginary part of Z.

The complex number Z can also be written in polar or exponential form as

Where r is the magnitude of z, and ∅ is the phase of z. We notice that z can be represented in
three ways:

Where:
Thus, z may be written as

≪====== Figure 4-2

Representation of a complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦 = 𝑟∠∅

Addition and subtraction of complex numbers are better performed in rectangular form;
multiplication and division are better done in polar form.
Given the complex numbers

The following operations are important

The idea of phasor representation is based on Euler’s identity. In general,

Which shows that we may regard cos ∅ ⁡𝑎𝑛𝑑 sin ∅ the real and imaginary parts of 𝑒 𝑗∅ ; we may
write

Let us consider a sinusoidal signal given below:

Equivalently the above equation can be written as

𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑹𝒆[𝑽𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 + ∅) + 𝒋𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + ∅)]
Where⁡⁡𝑗 = √−1 and from Euler’s theorem

Thus,

𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒(𝑽𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 )

Where 𝑽 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗∅ is called phasor representation of the sinusoid v(t),which is a complex
number representing the amplitude and phase angle of the sinusoidal signal .
Therefore the phasor representation of any sinusoidal signal 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) is;

And its phasor diagram is shown below

 Where Re - real axis
Im - imaginary axis

Figure 4-3: phasor diagram of sinusoidal signal 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)

We can transform the sinusoid from the time domain to the phasor domain

The following table 4-1 shown below summarizes the transformation of sinusoid in time domain
into phasor in frequency domain

Table4-1: Sinusoid-phasor transformation

Example 2

Example 3

Exercise 1

Exercise 2:
Convert the phasors into the time domain representation if the frequency is 400 Hz
a. 𝑉 = 10∠20°
b. 𝐼 = 12∠ − 60°
4.3. Phasor relationships for circuit elements
Now we know how to represent a voltage or current in the phasor or frequency domain, one may
ask how we apply this to circuits involving the passive elements R, L, and C. What we need to
do is to transform the voltage-current relationship from the time domain to the frequency domain
for each element.

A. Pure resistor circuit

Consider the pure resistive circuit shown below
Let
𝑣(𝑡) 𝑉𝑚 cos( 𝜔𝑡+∅)
Thus the current i(t) will be 𝑖(𝑡) = =
𝑅 𝑅

𝑉𝑚
𝑖(𝑡) = ⁡cos( 𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
𝑅
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝐈𝒎 ⁡𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 + ∅)
Where Im =Vm/R is the maximum or peak current

𝑽𝒎
In phasor form 𝑽 = 𝑽𝒎 ∠∅⁡⁡𝒂𝒏𝒅⁡𝑰 = 𝑰𝒎 ∠∅ = ∠∅
𝑹

Similarly in time domain relation

And 𝑖(𝑡) = I𝑚 ⁡cos(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)

Figure 4-4: Phasor diagram for the resistor figure 4-5: time domain graph

From the above relation the phase angle between the voltage and the current is zero, hence in
this circuit the voltage and the current are in phase.
For a purely resistive element, the voltage and the current through the element are in phase
 B. Pure inductor circuit
Consider the pure indicative circuit shown below

Assume the current through the inductor is i (t) =

The voltage across the inductor is;

But

We can write the voltage as

𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑥𝐿 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + ∅ + 90°)

𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑽𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 + ∅ + 𝟗𝟎°)
Where 𝑽𝒎 = 𝒙𝑳 𝑰𝒎 is the voltage amplitude in volt and
𝑽𝒎
𝒙𝑳 = 𝝎𝑳 = ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡ Is the reactance of the inductor in ohm.
𝑰𝒎

In phasor form
𝑽𝒎
𝑽 = 𝑽𝒎 ∠(∅ + 𝟗𝟎°) = 𝝎𝑳𝑰𝒎 ∠(∅ + 𝟗𝟎°)⁡𝒂𝒏𝒅⁡𝑰 = 𝑰𝒎 ∠∅ = ∠∅
𝝎𝑳
Therefore, the voltage and the current are 900 out of phase and in particular the voltage leads the
current by 90 0 as the current lags the voltage by 900 .

Figure 4-6: Phasor diagram for the inductor figure 4-7: time domain graph
 C. Pure capacitor circuit
Consider the pure capacitive circuit shown below

Assume the voltage across the capacitor is v =

The current through the capacitor is;

𝑑(𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + ∅))

𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐶 = −𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
𝑑𝑡
But− sin 𝐴 = cos(𝐴 + 90°)
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + ∅ + 90°)
𝑽𝒎
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬⁡(𝝎𝒕 + ∅ + 𝟗𝟎°)
𝒙𝑪
𝒊(𝒕) = 𝑰𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬⁡(𝝎𝒕 + ∅ + 𝟗𝟎°)
𝐕𝐦
Where ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐈𝐦 = ⁡ is the current amplitude in amperes and
𝐱𝐂

𝟏 𝑽𝒎
𝒙𝑪 = = ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡ is the reactance of the capacitor in ohm
𝝎𝑪 𝑰𝒎

In phasor form
𝑽 = 𝑽𝒎 ∠∅⁡⁡𝒂𝒏𝒅⁡𝑰 = 𝑰𝒎 ∠(∅ + 𝟗𝟎°) ⁡ = 𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 ∠(∅ + 𝟗𝟎°)
Therefore, the voltage and the current are 900 out of phase and in particular the current leads the
voltage by 90 0 as the voltage lags the current by 900 .

Figure 4-8: Phasor diagram for the capacitor; I leads V figure 4-9 : time domain graph
Note:
𝑿 = 𝑿𝒎 ∠(∅ + 𝟗𝟎°) = 𝑿𝒎 𝒆𝒋(∅+𝟗𝟎°) = 𝑿𝒎 (𝒆𝒋∅ . 𝒆𝒋𝟗𝟎° )⁡ but

Therefore 𝑿 = 𝑿𝒎 ∠(∅ + 𝟗𝟎°) = 𝒋𝑿𝒎 (𝒆𝒋∅ )

Generally Table 4-2 summarizes the time-domain and phasor-domain representations of the
circuit elements.
Table 4-2: Summary of voltage-current relationships.

Example 4

Exercise 2
4.4. Impedance and admittance
A. Impedance
Previously we obtained the voltage-current relations for the three passive elements as

These equations may be written in terms of the ratio of the phasor voltage to the phasor current

From these three expressions, we obtain Ohm’s law in phasor form for any type of element as

Where Z is a frequency-dependent quantity known as impedance, measured in ohms.

The impedance Z of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor voltage V to the phasor current I,
measured in ohms.
As a complex quantity, the impedance may be expressed in rectangular form as

Where R is the real part of Z, or resistive component which is resistance in ohms

X is the imaginary part of Z, or reactive component which is reactance in ohms
The impedance may also be expressed in polar form as
=
Where:

And
 B. Admittance
It is sometimes convenient to work with the reciprocal of impedance, known as admittance
The admittance Y is the reciprocal of impedance, measured in siemens (S).
The admittance Y of an element (or a circuit) is the ratio of the phasor current through it to the
phasor voltage across it, or

As a complex quantity, we may write Y as rectangular form

Where:
G is the real, conductance component (G=1/R), B is the imaginary susceptance component.
Admittance, conductance, and susceptance are all expressed in the unit of siemens (or mhos)
Table 4-3 summarizes the impedances and admittance of resistors, inductors, and capacitors.
Table 4-3: Impedances and admittances of passive elements

Therefore KVL and KCL are both valid in the frequency domain (phasor) as we done for resistors.
Thus impedance and admittances can be combined using the same rule that we established for
resistance and conductance combinations.
That is:
 if impedances 𝒁𝟏 ⁡, 𝒁𝟐 ⁡, 𝒁𝟑 . . . 𝒁𝑵 are connected in series , the equivalent impedance 𝒁𝒆𝒒
  if impedances 𝒁𝟏 ⁡, 𝒁𝟐 ⁡, 𝒁𝟑 . . . 𝒁𝑵 are connected in parallel , the equivalent impedance 𝒁𝒆𝒒

And the equivalent admittance is

Example 5
Find v(t) and i(t) in the circuit shown .
In time domain

Example 6
Find the input impedance of the circuit this figure. Assume
that the circuit operates at ω=50 rad/s.

Solution:
Example 7
Determine Vo (t) in this circuit.

Solution:
To do the analysis in the frequency domain, we must first transform the time-domain circuit to
the phasor-domain equivalent.
4.5. Power in ac circuit
i. Introduction
Power is the most important quantity in electric utilities, electronic, and communication systems,
because such systems involve transmission of power from one point to another. Also, every
industrial and household electrical device every fan, motor, lamp, pressing iron, TV, personal
computer—has a power rating that indicates how much power the equipment requires; exceeding
the power rating can do permanent damage to an appliance.
We will begin by defining and deriving instantaneous power and average power. We will then
introduce other power concepts.

ii. Instantaneous power and average power

Consider a linear circuit shown below

The instantaneous power p(t ) is calculated as

let v(t) be sinusoidal for a linear circuits, the current will be also sinusoidal and will have the
same frequency as the voltage and both have the following form ,

Therefore the instantaneous power absorbed by the circuit is

We apply the trigonometric identity

Thus, the instantaneous power will be

The instantaneous power changes with time and is therefore difficult to measure. The average
power is more convenient to measure. In fact, the wattmeter, the instrument for measuring power,
responds to average power.
The average power is the average of the instantaneous power over one period.
Thus, the average power is given by

Substituting instantaneous power p(t),

The average power becomes

The average power can be also written in terms of the rms values.

Similarly, the average power absorbed by a resistor R can be written as

The complex power delivered to the element is defined to be
1 1
𝑆 = 𝑉. 𝐼 ∗ ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡ = ⁡ (𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜃𝑣 . 𝐼𝑚 ∠𝜃𝑖 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 ∠(𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 )
2 2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
= ⁡⁡⁡ . ∠(𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 )
√2⁡ √2
= 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 . 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 ∠(𝜽𝒗 − 𝜽𝒊 )
The complex power then can be written as

1
The magnitude of the complex power 𝑆 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 . 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 is called apparent power its unit
2
is volt-amp (VA).
The complex power in rectangular form is then can be written as

Where:
1
P= 𝑺𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽𝒗 − 𝜽𝒊 ) = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽𝒗 − 𝜽𝒊 ) is the average power also called the active power or
2
real power .its unit is watt.
1
𝑸 = 𝑺𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽𝒗 − 𝜽𝒊 ) = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽𝒗 − 𝜽𝒊 ) is called the reactive power or wattless power ,and
2
is measured in reactive volt-Amperes (VAR).
 The complex power may be expressed in terms of the load impedance Z.

Since Z=R+jX the complex power becomes

Where P and Q are the real and imaginary parts of the complex power;
  the ratio of the average power to the apparent power is called the power factor (pf) that is

The angle 𝜽𝒗 − 𝜽𝒊 is called the power factor angle. Thus the average power absorbed by the
element can be expressed as
𝟏
𝑷= 𝑽 𝑰 . 𝒑𝒇
𝟐 𝒎 𝒎
 A circuit in which the current lags the voltage ( i.e an inductive circuit ,⁡𝜽𝒗 − 𝜽𝒊 >0) ,the
power factor is said to be lagging power factor .
 A circuit in which the current leads the voltage ( i.e an capacitive circuit ,⁡𝜽𝒗 − 𝜽𝒊 <0) ,the
power factor is said to be leading power factor .

Example 8

Example 9
For the circuit shown this figure, find the average power
supplied by the source and the average power absorbed by the
resistor.
4.6. Power factor
Power factor is a measure of how efficiently electrical power is consumed .the following table
summarizes how the power factor is affected by the combination of different circuit elements
Table 4-4: value of power factor due to circuit element combination
Loads Power factor
R unity (cos∅=cos(0)=1)
L zero lag(cos∅=cos(-900)=0)
C zero lead(cos∅=cos(900)=0)
R-L lagging pf (cos∅)
R-C leading pf (cos∅)

a. Case of low power factor:

Low power factor is caused mainly by induction motors .also by inductive loads, such as
transformers and magnetic lighting ballasts.

b. Disadvantage of low power factor

When you have a power factor less than unity the voltage and current waves in an AC circuit are
out of phase .this reduces the wattage at any instant of time.
Low power factor have the following disadvantage
 Large KVA rating of equipment:
The electrical machinery (example: alternatives, transformers, switchgear) is always rated in
KVA. It is clear that KVA rating of the equipment is inversely proportional to the power factor
.the smaller the power factor, the larger is the KVA rating .therefore this makes the equipment
large and expensive.
This causes losses in the machine, as well as increase the running cost of the whole planet
 Greater conductor size :
To transmit or distribute a fixed amount of power at a constant voltage, the conductor will have
to carry more current at low power factor .this necessitates large conductor size.
 Large copper losses :
The larger current at low power factor causes more I2R losses in all the elements of the supply
systems .this results in poor efficiency.
 poor voltage regulation :
c. Power factor correction
Most domestic loads (such as washing machines, air conditioners, and refrigerators) and
industrial loads (such as induction motors) are inductive and operate at a low lagging power
factor. Although the inductive nature of the load cannot be changed, we can increase its power
factor.
The process of increasing the power factor without altering the voltage or current to the original
load is known as power factor correction.
Since most loads are inductive, a load’s power factor is improved or corrected by deliberately
installing a capacitor in parallel with the load,

Power companies charge more for larger currents, because they result in increased power losses
(by a squared factor, since P = I 2 R). Therefore, it is beneficial to both the power company and
the consumer that every effort is made to minimize current level or keep the power factor as close
to unity as possible. By choosing a suitable size for the capacitor, the current can be made to be
completely in phase with the voltage, implying unity power factor.
We can look at the power factor correction from another perspective. Consider the power triangle
in Figure 4-10. If the original inductive load has apparent power S1, then

If we desire to increase the power factor from cosθ1 to cosθ2 without altering the real power
(i.e., P = S2cosθ2), then the new reactive power is

Figure 4-10: Power triangle illustrating power factor correction

The reduction in the reactive power is caused by the shunt capacitor, that is,

The value of the required shunt capacitance C is determined as

4.7. Resonance
Resonance in electrical circuits consisting of passive and active elements represents a particular
state of the circuit when the current or voltage in the circuit is maximum or minimum with respect
to the magnitude of excitation. At a particular frequency .the circuit impedance being either
minimum or maximum at the unity power factor.
Resonance is a condition in an RLC circuit in which the capacitive and inductive reactance are
equal in magnitude, there by resulting in a purely resistive impedance.
There are two types of resonant circuits: series and parallel

i. SERIES RESONANT CIRCUIT

Consider the series RLC circuit shown below in the frequency domain.

The input impedance is

𝒁 = 𝑹 + 𝒋(𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 )
Resonance results when 𝑿𝑳 = 𝑿𝑪
𝑿𝑳 = 𝑿 𝑪
1
𝜔𝐿 = ⁡
𝜔𝐶
The value of ω that satisfies this condition is called the resonant frequency ω 0. Thus, the resonance
condition is
1
𝜔0 𝐿 =
𝜔0 𝐶
The frequency response of the circuit’s current magnitude

Figure 4-11: The current amplitude versus frequency for the series resonant circuit

The highest power dissipated occurs at resonance, when I =Vm/R, so that

At certain frequencies ω=ω1, ω2, the dissipated power is half the maximum value; that is,

Hence, ω1 and ω2 are called the half-power frequencies. The half-power frequencies are obtained
by setting Z equal to √2R, and writing

Solving for ω, we obtain

Band width B, which is defined as the difference between the two half-power frequencies,
Quality factor of series Resonance circuit
In series RLC circuit, the Q-factor is defined as
𝑉𝐿
𝑄= − − − − − − − − − 𝑓𝑜𝑟⁡𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒⁡𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡⁡
𝑉𝑅
𝐼𝑜𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐿 𝜔0 𝐿 1
𝑄= = = , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒⁡𝜔0 =
𝐼𝑜𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 √𝐿𝐶
𝟏
𝑸= √𝑳/𝑪⁡⁡⁡
𝑹
𝑉𝑐
𝑄= − − − − − − − − − 𝑓𝑜𝑟⁡𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒⁡⁡𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
𝑉𝑅
𝟏
𝑸=
𝝎𝟎 𝑪𝑹

ii. Parallel resonance circuit

The parallel RLC circuit shown in the Figure below is the dual of the series RLC circuit. So we
will avoid needless repetition.

The admittance is

Resonance occurs when the imaginary part of Y is zero,

4.8. Steady state ac analysis
The circuit analysis techniques such as nodal analysis, mesh analysis, superposition, source
transformation, the thevenin theorem and Norton theorem are also applicable to AC steady state
circuit analysis.
Analyzing ac circuits usually requires three steps.
A. Transform the circuit to the phasor or frequency domain.
B. Solve the problem using circuit techniques (nodal analysis, mesh analysis, superposition, etc.)
C. Transform the resulting phasor to the time domain.
Example 1
Find ix in the circuit using nodal analysis.

Thus, the frequency-domain equivalent circuit is

Put in matrix form as
 Chapter 5: Magnetic Coupled Circuit

5.1. INTRODUCTION
The circuits we have considered so far may be regarded as conductively coupled, because one
loop affects the neighboring loop through current conduction. When two loops with or without
contacts between them affect each other through the magnetic field generated by one of them,
they are said to be magnetically coupled.
The transformer is an electrical device designed on the basis of the concept of magnetic
coupling. It uses magnetically coupled coils to transfer energy from one circuit to another.
Transformers are key circuit elements. They are used in power systems for stepping up or stepping
down ac voltages or currents. They are used in electronic circuits such as radio and television
receivers for such purposes as impedance matching, isolating one part of a circuit from another,
and again for stepping up or down ac voltages and currents.

5.2. SELF AND MUTUAL INDUCTANCE

a. Self-Inductance
Let us consider a single inductor, a coil with N turns. When
current i flows through the coil, a magnetic flux ∅ is
produced around it as shown in circuit Fig.5.1. According
to Faraday’s law, the voltage v induced in the coil is
proportional to the number of turns N and the time rate
of change of the magnetic flux ∅; that is, Figure 5.1: Magnetic flux produced by a single
coil with N turns.

But the flux ∅ is produced by current i so that any change in ∅ is caused by a change in the current.
Hence, the voltage v can be rewritten as;

---voltage-current relationship for the inductor.

the inductance L of the inductor is then given by

This inductance is commonly called self-inductance, because it relates the voltage induced in a
coil by a time-varying current in the same coil.
 b. Mutual-Inductance
now consider two coils with self-inductances L1 and L2 that are in close proximity with each other
(Fig. 5.2). Coil 1 has N1 turns, while coil 2 has N2 turns. For the sake of simplicity, assume that
the second inductor carries no current. The magnetic flux ∅1 emanating from coil 1 has two
components: one component ∅11 links only coil 1, and
another component ∅12 links both coils. Hence,

Although the two coils are physically separated, they are

said to be magnetically coupled. Since the entire flux
∅1 links coil 1, the voltage induced in coil 1 is
Figure 5.2 Mutual inductance M21 of coil 2
with respect to coil 1.

Only flux ∅12 links coil 2, so the voltage induced in coil 2 is

M21 is known as the mutual inductance of coil 2 with respect to coil 1. Thus, the open-circuit
mutual voltage (or induced voltage) across coil 2 is

Suppose we now let current i2 flow in coil 2, while coil 1 carries no current (Fig. 5.3). The
magnetic flux ∅2 emanating from coil 2 comprises flux ∅22 that links only coil 2 and flux ∅21 that
links both coils. Hence,
Figure 5.3 Mutual inductance M12 of coil 1
with respect to coil 2.

M12 is the mutual inductance of coil 1 with respect to coil 2. Thus, the open-circuit mutual voltage
across coil 1 is

In the terminal voltages, can be written as follow;

𝑑∅1(𝑡) 𝑑
𝑉1 (𝑡) = 𝑁1 = 𝑁1 {∅11 (𝑡)+∅12 (𝑡)}
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
𝑑∅11(𝑡) 𝑑∅12(𝑡)
= 𝑁1 + 𝑁1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅2(𝑡) 𝑑
𝑉2 (𝑡) = 𝑁2 = 𝑁2 {∅22 (𝑡)+∅21 (𝑡)}
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
𝑑∅22(𝑡) 𝑑∅21(𝑡)
= 𝑁2 + 𝑁2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
But we know that
∅11 (𝑡) ∝ 𝑁1 𝑖1 (𝑡) => ∅11 (𝑡) = 𝐾1 𝑁1 𝑖1 (𝑡)
∅12 (𝑡) ∝ 𝑁2 𝑖2 (𝑡) => ∅12 (𝑡) = 𝐾12 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑖2 (𝑡)
Where K1 and K12 are proportionality constant called permeance that depends on the magnetic
field taken by the flux components
Therefore, the voltage equations at coil 1 can be rewritten as
𝑑𝑖1 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑖2 (𝑡)
𝑉1 (𝑡) = 𝐾1 𝑁12 + 𝐾12 𝑁1 𝑁2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Similarly
𝑑∅2(𝑡) 𝑑∅22(𝑡) 𝑑∅21(𝑡)
𝑉2 (𝑡) = 𝑁2 = 𝑁2 + 𝑁2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
But
∅22 (𝑡) ∝ 𝑁2 𝑖2 (𝑡) => ∅22 (𝑡) = 𝐾2 𝑁2 𝑖2 (𝑡)
∅21 (𝑡) ∝ 𝑁2 𝑖2 (𝑡) => ∅21 (𝑡) = 𝐾21 𝑁2 𝑁2 𝑖1 (𝑡)
Therefore, the voltage equations at coil 2 can be rewritten as
𝑑𝑖1 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑖2 (𝑡)
𝑉2 (𝑡) = 𝐾21 𝑁1 𝑁2 + 𝐾2 𝑁22
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 For a linear magnetic medium 𝐾12 = 𝐾21 = 𝐾𝑚 ,thus the voltage equations of both coils
can be written as
𝑑𝑖1 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑖2 (𝑡)
𝑉1 (𝑡) = 𝐾1 𝑁12 + 𝐾𝑚 𝑁1 𝑁2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖1 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑖2 (𝑡)
= 𝐿1 +𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
And
𝑑𝑖1 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑖2 (𝑡)
𝑉2 (𝑡) = 𝐾𝑚 𝑁1 𝑁2 + 𝐾2 𝑁22
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖1 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑖2 (𝑡)
=𝑀 + 𝐿2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Where:
𝐿1 = 𝐾1 𝑁12 is self-inductance of coil 1 in Henry
𝐿2 = 𝐾2 𝑁22 is self-inductance of coil 2 in Henry
M=𝐾𝑚 𝑁1 𝑁2 is mutual inductance between the two coils in Henry.
The general equation for the v-I characteristics of a mutually coupled circuit in time domain is;
𝒅𝒊𝟏 (𝒕) 𝒅𝒊𝟐 (𝒕)
𝑽𝟏 (𝒕) = 𝑳𝟏 ±𝑴
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒊𝟏 (𝒕) 𝒅𝒊𝟐 (𝒕)
𝑽𝟐 (𝒕) = ±𝑴 + 𝑳𝟐
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
we refer to M as the mutual inductance between the two coils. Like self-inductance L, mutual
inductance M is measured in henrys (H). Keep in mind that mutual coupling only exists when the
inductors or coils are in close proximity, and the circuits are driven by time-varying sources. We
recall that inductors act like short circuits to dc.
Mutual inductance is the ability of one inductor to induce a voltage across a neighboring
inductor, measured in henrys (H).

Although mutual inductance M is always a

positive quantity, the mutual voltage Mdi/dt
may be negative or positive, therefore the
polarity is determined by a mechanism called
DOT convention. By this convention, a dot is
placed in the circuit at one end of each of the
two magnetically coupled coils to indicate the
direction of the magnetic flux if current enters
that dotted terminal of the coil as shown in the
circuit figure 5.4. Figure 5.4: Illustration of the dot convention.

The dot convention is stated as follows:

1. If a current enters the dotted terminal of one coil, the reference polarity of the mutual
voltage in the second coil is positive at the dotted terminal of the second coil.
Alternatively,
2. If a current leaves the dotted terminal of one coil, the reference polarity of the mutual
voltage in the second coil is negative at the dotted terminal of the second coil.
 Figure 5.5: Examples illustrating how to apply the dot convention.

Figure 5.6 below shows the dot convention for coupled coils in series. For the coils in Fig. 5.6(a),
the total inductance is

For the coil in Fig. 5.6(b),

Figure 5.6: Dot convention for coils in series; the sign indicates the polarity of the mutual voltage: (a) series-aiding
connection, (b) series-opposing connection.
  Coupled coils are parts of linear circuit with sinusoidal input and that the circuit is at steady
state. the coupled coils (conductors) can be represented in phasor form as;
𝑽𝟏 = 𝒋𝝎𝑳𝟏 𝑰𝟏 ± 𝒋𝝎𝑴𝑰𝟐
𝑽𝟐 = ±𝒋𝝎𝑴𝑰𝟏 + 𝒋𝝎𝑳𝟐 𝑰𝟐
Self-Inductance L1, L2 and mutual inductance M, each depends on the magnetic property and
geometry of the core and the number of turns in the coil.
Let;
𝑀
𝐿1 . 𝐿2 = 𝐾1 𝑁12 𝐾2 𝑁22 = 𝐾1 𝐾2 (𝑁1 𝑁2 )2 but M=𝐾𝑚 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁1 𝑁2 =
𝐾𝑚

Therefore;
𝑀 2 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝑀2 1 𝐾1 𝐾2
𝐿1 . 𝐿2 = 𝐾1 𝐾2 ( ) = 2 let say =
𝐾𝑚 𝐾𝑚 𝐾2 𝐾𝑚 2

𝑀2 𝑀2
∴ 𝐿1 . 𝐿2 =  𝐾2 =
𝐾2 𝐿1 .𝐿2

𝑴
𝑲= K is called the coupling coefficient.
√𝑳𝟏 .𝑳𝟐

Example 5.1
Calculate the phasor currents I1 and I2 in the circuit shown below.
 Chapter 6: polyphase circuits

6.1. introduction
So far, we have dealt with single-phase circuits. A single-phase ac power system consists of a
generator connected through a pair of wires (a transmission line) to a load. of wires (a
transmission line) to a load. Figure 6.1(a) shows a single phase two-wire system, where Vp is the
magnitude of the source voltage and ∅ is the phase. What is more common in practice is a single-
phase three-wire system, shown in Fig. 6.1(b). It contains two identical sources (equal magnitude
and the same phase) which are connected to two loads by two outer wires and the neutral. For
example, the normal household system is a single-phase three-wire system because the terminal
voltages have the same magnitude and the same phase. Such a system allows the connection of
both 120-V and 240-V appliances.

Figure 6.1: Single-phase systems: (a) two-wire type, (b) three-wire type

Circuits or systems in which the ac sources operate at the same frequency but different phases are
known as polyphase. Fig. 6.2 shows a three-phase four-wire system. Three-phase system is
produced by a generator consisting of three sources having the same amplitude and frequency but
out of phase with each other by 1200. Since the three-phase system is by far the most prevalent and
most economical polyphase system, discussion in this chapter is mainly on three-phase systems.

 Figure 6.2

Three-phase four-wire system.
Three-phase systems are important for at least three reasons.
 First, nearly all electric power is generated and distributed in three-phase, at the operating
frequency of 60 Hz
 Second, the instantaneous power in a three-phase system can be constant (not pulsating),
This results in uniform power transmission and less vibration of three-phase machines.
 Third, for the same amount of power, the three-phase system is more economical than the
single-phase, the amount of wire required for a three-phase system is less than that required
for an equivalent single-phase system.

6.2. BALANCED THREE-PHASE VOLTAGES

Three-phase voltages are often produced with a three-phase ac generator (figure 6.3a), in which
the induced voltages in the coils are equal in magnitude but out of phase by 1200 (figure 6.3b).

Figure 6.3: A] A three-phase generator. B] The generated voltages are 120 apart from each other.

A typical three-phase system consists of three voltage sources connected to loads by three or four
wires (or transmission lines). A three-phase system is equivalent to three single-phase circuits.
The voltage sources can be either wye-connected as shown in Fig. 6.4(a) or delta-connected as
in Fig.6.4(b).

Figure 6.4: Three-phase voltage sources: (a) Y-connected source, (b) Delta connected source.
Let us consider the wye-connected voltages in Fig. 6.4(a), The voltages Van, Vbn, and Vcn are
respectively between lines a, b, and c, and the neutral line n. These voltages are called phase
voltages. If the voltage sources have the same amplitude and frequency ω and are out of phase
with each other by 1200 ,the voltages are said to be balanced. This implies that

Thus,
Balanced phase voltages are equal in magnitude and are out of phase with each other by 120◦ .

since the three-phase voltages are 1200 out of phase with each other, there are two
possible combinations. One possibility is shown in Fig.6.5(a) and expressed
mathematically as

where Vp is the effective or rms value. This is known as the abc sequence or positive
sequence. This sequence is produced when the rotor of the generator rotates
counterclockwise.
The other possibility is shown in Fig.6.5(b) and is given by

This is called the acb sequence or negative sequence, the acb sequence is produced
when the rotor of the generator rotates in the clockwise direction.
Figure 6.5: Phase sequences:
(a) abc or positive sequence,
(b) acb or negative sequence

Like the generator (voltage source) connections, a three-phase load can be either wye-connected
or delta-connected, depending on the end application. Figure 6.6(a) shows a wye-connected load,
and Figure 6.6(b) shows a delta-connected load. The neutral line in Figure 6.6(a) may or may
not be there, depending on whether the system is four- or three-wire. (And, of course, a neutral
connection is topologically impossible for a delta connection.) A wye- or delta-connected load is
said to be unbalanced if the phase impedances are not equal in magnitude or phase.
Figure 6.6: (a) a Y-connected load, (b) a ∆- connected load

A balanced load is one in which the phase impedances are equal in magnitude and in phase.
For a balanced wye-connected load,

where ZY is the load impedance per phase. For a balanced delta-connected load

where Z∆ is the load impedance per phase in this case

so, we know that a wye-connected load can be transformed into a delta- connected load, or vice
versa, using the following formula as you have learned in your previous sections

Since both the three-phase source and the three-phase load can be either wye- or delta-connected,
we have four possible connections:
a. Y-Y connection (Y-connected source with a Y-connected load)
b. Y-∆ connection (Y-connected source with a ∆-connected load)
c. ∆-Y connection (∆-connected source with a Y-connected load)
d. ∆-∆ connection (∆-connected source with a ∆-connected load)
 a. BALANCED WYE-WYE CONNECTION
A balanced Y-Y system is a three-phase system with a balanced Y-connected source and a
balanced Y-connected load. Consider the balanced four-wire Y-Y system of Figure 6.7, where a
Y-connected load is connected to a Y-connected source

 Figure 6.7

balanced Y-Y connection

Assuming the positive sequence, the phase voltages (or line-to neutral voltages) are;

The line-to-line voltages or simply line voltages Vab, Vbc, and Vca are related to the phase voltages.
For example,

Similarly, we can obtain

Figure 6.8: phasor representation that relates the phase voltage and the line voltages
Thus, the magnitude of the line voltages VL is √3 times the magnitude of the phase voltages Vp ,

we obtain the line currents as

We can readily infer that the line currents add up to zero,

While the line current is the current in each line, the phase current is the current in each phase of
the source or load. In the Y-Y system, the line current is the same as the phase current
Example 6.1
Calculate the line currents in the three-wire Y-Y system of circuit below

Solution

Since the source voltages in this circuit are in positive sequence and the line currents are also in
positive sequence,

Assignment 1
 b. BALANCED WYE-DELTA CONNECTION

A balanced Y-∆ system consists of a balanced Y-connected source feeding a balanced

∆ -connected load.
The balanced Y-delta system is shown in Fig. 12.14, where the source is wye-connected and the
load is ∆-connected.

Figure 6.9: Balanced Y-∆ connection.

Assuming the positive sequence, the phase voltages are again;

the line voltages are

From these voltages, we can obtain the phase currents as

These currents have the same magnitude but are out of phase with each other by 120 0.
The line currents are obtained from the phase currents by applying KCL at nodes A, B, and C.
Thus,

Figure 6.10
Phasor diagram illustrating the relationship between
phase and line currents.

showing that the magnitude IL of the line current is √3 times the magnitude Ip of the phase current,

Example 6.2
Solution
The load impedance is

Problem 6.1

.
 c. BALANCED DELTA-DELTA CONNECTION
A balanced ∆-∆ system is one in which both the balanced source and balanced load
are ∆-connected.
The source as well as the load may be delta-connected as shown in Figure 6.11

Figure 6.11:
Balanced ∆-∆ connection

Assuming a positive sequence, the phase voltages for a delta-connected source are

The line voltages are the same as the phase voltages.

The line currents are obtained from the phase currents by applying KCL at nodes A, B, and C, as
we did in the previous section:

each line current lags the corresponding phase current by 300 . the magnitude IL of the line current
is √3 times the magnitude Ip of the phase current,
Example 6.3

Solution

d. BALANCE DDELTA-WYE CONNECTION

A balanced ∆-Y system consists of a balanced ∆-connected source feeding a balanced Y-
connected load as shown in the figure 6.12
  Figure 6.12
A balanced ∆-Y connection.

Again, assuming the abc sequence, the phase voltages of a delta-connected source are;

These are also the line voltages as well as the phase voltages.
We can obtain the line currents by applying KVL to loop aANBba at circuit figure 33;

Therefor the line current is;

Table 6.1: Summary of phase and line voltages/currents for balanced three-phase systems at
which positive sequence is assumed (a-b-c sequence)
Example 6.4

6.3. POWER IN A BALANCED SYSTEM

Let us now consider the power in a balanced three-phase system. We begin by examining the
instantaneous power absorbed by the load. This requires that the analysis be done in the time
domain. For a Y-connected load, the phase voltages are
where Ip is the rms value of the phase current. The total instantaneous power in the load is the sum
of the instantaneous powers in the three phases; that is,

Thus, the total instantaneous power in a balanced three-phase system is constant, it does not
change with time as the instantaneous power of each phase does. This result is true whether the
load is Y- or ∆-connected. This is one important reason for using a three-phase system to generate
and distribute power.
Since the total instantaneous power is independent of time, the average power per phase
Pp for either the ∆-connected load or the Y connected load is p/3, or
where Vp and Ip are the phase voltage and phase current with magnitudes Vp and Ip , respectively.
The total average power is the sum of the average powers in the phases:

For a Y -connected load IL=Ip, but VL=√3Vp, whereas for a ∆-connected loads IL=√3Ip ,thus the
above equation for total average power applies for both Y -connected and ∆-connected load .
Similarly, the total reactive power is;

Example 6.5
6.4. UNBALANCED THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
This chapter would be incomplete without mentioning unbalanced three phase systems. An
unbalanced system is caused by two possible situations:
(1) the source voltages are not equal in magnitude and/or differ in phase by angles that are
unequal, or
(2) load impedances are unequal.
Thus,
An unbalanced system is due to unbalanced voltage sources or an unbalanced load.
To simplify analysis, we will assume balanced source voltages, but an unbalanced load.
Unbalanced three-phase systems are solved by direct application of mesh and nodal analysis.
Figure 6.13 shows an example of an unbalanced three-phase system that consists of balanced
source voltages and an unbalanced Y-connected load (shown in the figure 6.13). Since the load
is unbalanced, ZA, ZB, and ZC are not equal.

Figure 6.13
Unbalanced three-phase Y-connected load.
The line currents are determined by Ohm’s laws.

To calculate power in an unbalanced three-phase system requires that we find the power in each
phase and the total power is not simply three times the power in one phase but the sum of the
powers in the three phases.

Example 6.6
The unbalanced Y-connected load has balanced voltages of 100 V
and the acb sequence. Calculate the line currents and the neutral
current.

Solution:
the line currents are

the current in the neutral line is;

End!!!!