INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH

The Pentateuch refers to the first five books of the Bible. It occupies a very important place
in Judaism and in Christianity.

The Pentateuch remains a principal text that serve as a source of Israelite history,
especially her early history. In this course we shall introduce you to the books classified as
the Pentateuch and

The reasons they were so classified. It is hoped that this would lay the foundation for the
subsequent examination of the Pentateuch and all that relates to it.

What is the Pentateuch?

The word ‘Pentateuch’ is a compound word from two Greek words: pent which means five
and teuchos which means scroll, document, book. When used in relation to the Old
Testament, it means the first five books. Origen, one of the early church fathers, was the
first to use the term ‘Pentateuch’ in reference to these books. Among the Jews it is called
Torah, which some translated to mean ‘Law’. Torah, however could mean, principle,
instruction or guideline. In essence therefore, the ancient Israelites see the Pentateuch as
a guiding principle for their socio-religious activities. It has foundational and normative
values. That is why it is said that the Pentateuch occupies a unique place in the life of the
people.
Books Classified as Pentateuch

The books classified as the Pentateuch are the following: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus,
Numbers and Deuteronomy. In the Hebrew bible, (you should remember that the
Pentateuch was originally

Written in Hebrew language, the language spoken by the ancient

Israelites) the first key word of phrase of each book of the Pentateuch is the title. For
example, Genesis is called “Bereshith” which means “in the beginning “. Exodus is called
“Elleh

Shemoth” which means, “these are the names”. Leviticus is called “wayiqra” which means
‘ and he called’. Numbers is called “Bammidbar” which means ‘in the wilderness’. The
books of Deuteronomy is called “Devarim” meaning ‘words’. The English names for the
books of Pentateuch were derived from the

Septuagint (LXX). The English titles therefore have Greek background.

Genesis = “Beginning’

Exodus = ‘Way out’

Leviticus = ‘Pertaining to the Levites’

Numbers= ‘Numbering’

Deuteronomy = ‘Second law’

Pentateuch in Israelite History

That the Israelite history is firmly rooted in addressing the destiny of humanity cannot be
contested. It is however the Pentateuch that helps us to understand better God’s purpose
for Israel especially in relation to the redemption of mankind. The Pentateuch begins

With the creation of human, the subsequent fall and the attendant

Consequences and the process of restoration.

The historical framework of the Pentateuch consists of the formation of Israel, from the call
of Abraham to the death of Moses. It spans a period of over 600 years, that is, from about
1900 BC to about 1250 BC. However it may be difficult to determine the precise dates the
events recorded in the Pentateuch

Happened. The difficult part that cannot be dated easily is the early stage of the Israelite
history, especially what is referred to as the patriarchal history (i.e. the history of the early
ancestors of

Israel).
The Pentateuch can be divided into two main sub-divisions. The first is about the story of
the patriarchs – Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Joseph (Gen. 12-50) and the second section
relates the story of Moses and the formation of the nation of Israel (Exodus –
Deuteronomy). Genesis 1-11 however serves as prologue to the

Pentateuch; it connects the whole of humanity to God’s purpose to be fulfilled through

Israel.

THE AUTHORSHIP OF PENTATEUCH

Introduction

The issue of the authorship of the Pentateuch remains a contentious one in contemporary
Old Testament scholarship. In this unit we will look into the composition of the Pentateuch.
The argument of the authorship of the Pentateuch centers on Mosaic authorship. In view of
this, the different arguments and evidences raised in order to support the fact that Moses
was the author will be examined. Likewise the

Arguments against this position will also be examined.

Authorship of the Pentateuch

The issue of who actually wrote the Pentateuch is a serious one in the field of Old
Testament studies. The problem is compounded because the Pentateuch is anonymously
written. In other words, nowhere do these five books explicitly or implicitly indicate the
author. However, until the rise of modern Biblical criticism, the Jews and the Christians had
always

Taken at face value the claim that the Pentateuch was written by the historic Moses of 15 th
Century B.C. This position that Moses was the author of the Pentateuch has been variously
and seriously challenged.

This for example, has led to the formation of the popular documentary

Hypothesis about the composition of the Pentateuch. We shall discuss in detail the
documentary hypothesis in the next unit. However, before then we shall examine the
arguments for and against Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch.

Arguments against Mosaic Authorship of the Pentateuch

1.Anachronisms in the Pentateuch do not support the fact that it was written by Moses. By
anachronism, we mean making reference to a later development, or events in a time when
those events and developments have not happened. For example, if I say “My great-great
grandfather traveled in an aeroplane 2000 years ago”. This statement is anachronistic
because aeroplane was invented over 100 years ago. In Gen. 36:31, we read “these were
the kings who reigned in Edom before any Israelite king reigned.” Someone who was aware
that kings were already reigning in Israel would make this statement. On the basis of
anachronistic texts like this in Pentateuch, Mosaic Authorship was rejected.
2. There are features, which suggest that these five books are not the product of a single
author or of a single age. The same events are sometimes described more than once, with
significance

Difference. On the other hand, plain contradictions occur with single stories, in such a way
as to point to the interweaving of varying traditions or written records. For example, Gen.
1:1-2:4a gives a different account of creation from that contained in Gen. 2:4b-25 (see also
Gen. 6:19, Exodus 7:2ff).

3. There are also discrepancies that negate Mosaic authorship of the

Pentateuch. One of the most significant discrepancies concerns the use of different names
for God. In Exodus 6:2ff we read, “ And God appeared to Moses and said to him, I am
Yahweh, and I

Appeared to Abraham, to Isaac, to Jacob as Elshaddai, but by my name Yahweh I did not
make myself known to them”. But

Genesis 4:1, 26 imply the use of the name Yahweh from very early times, and in Gen. 27:7
and 28:13 God says to Abraham and to Jacob ‘I am Yahweh’.
4.There are differences in vocabulary and style in various parts of both the narratives and
laws in Pentateuch. These differences show that several authors must have written the
Pentateuch. The

Variations of style and vocabulary also correspond with other differences. This therefore
strengthens the case for diversity of authorship.

5. In the time of Moses, the art of writing was said not to be in existence. In the light of this,
the Pentateuch must have been written long after Moses.

Arguments for Mosaic Authorship of the Pentateuch

1. There are internal evidences that support the fact that the Pentateuch must have
been written by Moses. For example in several instances Moses was commanded to
write what he heard

And saw. For example, Exodus 17:14.

“And Moses wrote down all the words of the LORD. He rose early in the morning, and built
an altar at the foot of the
Mountain, and set up twelve pillars, corresponding to the twelve tribes of Israel” (Exodus
24:4).

2. References were made in other Old Testament books that Moses was the author of
the Pentateuch (see Jos. 1:8; Ex. 20:25, I Kings 2:3).

3. Some of the artifacts and inscriptions discovered today by archaeologists attested

to the fact that writing was in existence even before the time of Moses.

4. The New Testament acknowledges Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch.

5.The Pentateuch has internal evidence of being written by an eyewitness of the exodus:

a.He knows details, like how many wells and trees were at Elim, and the exact appearance
and taste of manna (Ex.15:22).

b. The author uses old names and example from Egypt to explain things in Pentateuch
(Gen. 13:10, 23:2,Num.
13:22)

c. He uses a greater percentage of Egyptian words than elsewhere in the Old Testament.

From the argument against and for the authorship of the Pentateuch, it is

Evident that both positions are tenable. However, in conclusion, Moses could have written
something. However, what he wrote must have been elaborated and expanded by

Subsequent generations. This may be done in order to accommodate prevailing

Sensibilities. Our present Pentateuch therefore, cannot be taken as the

Original work of Moses

THE DOCUMENTARY HYPOTHESIS OF THE PENTATEUCH

In the last unit you will recall that we said that the Mosaic authorship of
The Pentateuch is in dispute. It was in the process of finding who the author of the
Pentateuch was, that the documentary hypothesis was adumbrated. The hypothesis is one
of the critical approaches in addressing the problem of Pentateuchal authorship.

The documentary hypothesis is the

Theory that the Pentateuch was a

Compilation of selection from several different written documents composed at different

places and times over a period of five centuries long after Moses. The documentary
hypothesis had its beginning with Jean Astruc a French Physician, who became interested
in the literary analysis of Genesis. In his studies of Genesis, Astruc discovered that God
was referred to only as “Elohim” in Genesis 1 and mostly as “Jehovah” (or Yahweh) in
Genesis 2. He did not however deny Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch. He only tried to
account for the occurrences of two different names in the two chapters. This led Astruc

To the conclusion that Moses used two different written sources, which gave two different
accounts of creation.

Subsequently, scholars labeled these sources J and E, based on the divine names Yahweh
and Elohim.

The next stage came with J.G. Eichorn, who in one of his works published in 1783 divided
the entire book of Genesis, plus the first two chapters of Exodus. He separated the
materials that belonged to Yahwist and Elohist (J and E). This method was also employed by
subsequent scholars who identified materials belonging to J and E in other parts of the
Pentateuch. For now you should have in mind that two written

Sources have so far been identified as being behind the composition of the Pentateuch.
These are sources J and E. You also remember that the occurrence of the divine
nomenclature Jehovah (J) and Elohim € in different narratives of the same event accounted
for the two sources.

The third stage came with the contribution of William M.L. De Wette.

This concerns the book of Deuteronomy. He set fourth the view that none of the Pentateuch
came from a period earlier than the time of David. De Wette also believed that
Deuteronomy bore all earmarks of being the book of law, which was found by priest Hilkiah.
This was

During the reforms of Josiah in 622B.C (II Kings 22) when the king and the priests were
united in the purpose to abolish all worship and sacrifice to Jehovah outside the capital city
(Jerusalem). In view of this, De Wette came to the conclusion that the book purportedly
found by the priest Hilkiah was a forgery. The book was concocted to serve the

Governmental campaign. This document was believed to lie behind the

Composition of our present Deuteronomy. It was called D because it was entirely separate
in origin from J and E. De Wette came to this conclusion because he discovered that the life
– situation or what we call plot, is not that of the time of Moses but long after the
settlement in Canaan. Now three hypothetical written sources have been identified as

Being behind the composition of the Pentateuch: these are D.E.J.

In 1853 Herman Hupfeld, in his work, The Sources of Genesis subjected E to a thorough re-
examination. In the process, he found two distinct sources. First one E2 consisting of those
rather considerable portions of the Elohist (E) that greatly resembled J in style, vocabulary,
and subject matter. He called the other document E1. The E1 document was what scholars
later renamed P or the Priestly code. This is because it

Contains cultic and ritual legislation. That is, it has to do with issues like the

Sacrifice, priestly ordination, priestly conduct etc. We now have the fourth source P that
was behind the composition of the Pentateuch.

After the works of Hupfeld, others also made one contribution or the other to the
documentary hypothesis. However, the scholar who set the stage for the definitive
formulation of the documentary hypothesis was Julius Wellhaussen. Although
Wellhaussen contributed no innovations to speak of, he only restated the documentary
theory with great skill and persuasiveness supporting the JEDP sequence. He was able to
suggest when, where and how the different sources developed. He believed that source J
was the first to be written. It was probably written around the tenth century B.C. This is
followed by source E written probably after the division of the kingdom of Israel in 922B.C.
Source D was written around the seventh Century B.C. while P was post-exilic in character,

That is, it was written after the Babylonian exile.

According to the exponents of the documentary hypothesis, these sources were creatively
weaved together by an editor in the post exilic period. Evidence to support this fact can be
seen in the tensions noticeable in the text. The differences in style, vocabulary and
Perspectives are pointers to the fact that the materials that made up the

Pentateuch emanated from different origins. Besides, the socio-political

Sensibilities of the areas where these sources emanated are indicated in the narratives.

A Brief Description of the Sources

Y or J – the author of this source is called “Yahwist” because he preferred the name Yahweh
as God’s personal name. The reason why J is used to designate this source is because the
Germans were the leading exponents of this hypothesis. The German spelling of “Yahweh”
is “Jahweh”, that is how the latter J was used to describe the author and the narrative.

One of the characteristics of J is that the authors show particular interest in the Southern
tribe of Judah. Heroes from Judah were stressed, and the leading position of Judah among
the tribes of Israel was given a prime position.

E – the author of this source is probably from the Northern tribes of Israel (remember that
Israel broke into two during the reign of Rehoboam, the Northern kingdom composed of 10
tribes were called Israel, while the Southern tribes 2 in number were called Judah). The
writers of this source represent the perspectives of the Northern tribes,
Who never fully united with the southern tribes. This source is called ‘Elohistic’ because the
name of God used is Elohim. The writer believed that the name predates the name Yahweh
later revealed to Moses. However, after the fall of the Northern kingdom in 722B.C a
redactor

(check for redaction criticism in unit 2) from the southern kingdom harmonized J and E.

D – This source basically relate to the composition of Deuteronomy. It can be traced to the
book of law found by the priest Hilkiah (II Kings 22). The main goal of the document was to
serve as the framework for the reforms of Josiah. It set out with the goal and agenda of

Centralization of the cult and reformation of Israel’s religion.

P– The priestly source can be traced to a priestly narrator who supplemented the JE
narrative with ritual and cultic materials. These materials are found primarily in the cultic
legislation in Exodus 25-31, 35-40, and in the laws of sacrifices, festivals and ritual purity
found throughout Leviticus. The development of the Priestly code was borne out of the
concern to make Israelite religion unique. When the people were taken into exile, the
priests assumed leadership. This led to

Emphasis on rituals and cultic legislation.

A Critique of the Documentary Hypothesis

It is important to note here that down through the centuries, the documentary hypothesis
has been subjected to a serious criticism. There are those who vehemently disagreed with
the premises and conclusions of the exponents of the hypothesis. In order to maintain a
balance, it will be better to be exposed to some objections raised against the

Documentary hypothesis. These are:

1. The theory is hypothetical in character. That is the theory does not have valid
historical evidences to support it. If it is true that there are written sources behind
the composition of the

Pentateuch, then where are the documents? If the written sources

Cannot be produced it will amount to nothing but a speculative exercise.

2. On the use of different names for God, critics of the documentary hypothesis
believed that in most cultures and religions of the world, there are several names for
God. A writer might use the

Divine names interchangeably. This may account for the occurrences of Yahweh and
Elohim in the different parts of the

Pentateuch.
 3. The documentary hypothesis is subjective in its judgment. This must have
accounted for the lack of uniformity as to what belongs to a source or the other. If
the documentary hypothesis is based on valid historical evidences, there should be
some element of unity.

4. It is very difficult based on the use of divine nomenclature, to categorise materials in

Pentateuch as emanating either from the South or Northern Israel. The usage of
Yahweh and Elohim is

Popular in both kingdoms and this is because they were one kingdom before the division.

5. It is also difficult to determine mainly on differences of style and vocabulary, how

the Pentateuch was finally edited. The same person can decide to vary his style.
Furthermore, the subject matter discussed determines ranges of vocabulary to be
sued.