CHAPTER - I

INTRODUCTION

“It’s easier to build a child than to repair an adult.” (Gray, 1992)

"This may be the first generation in which children live a shorter life span than their
parents. If this were caused by a new virus or pathogen, or if some madman was
harming the children, there would be a call to action from most parents, an uprising
and uproar. But it’s not some external germ or sinister force that’s eating our young;
it’s what our young are eating – too much fat, salt and sugar. And it’s not only what
they’re doing, but also what they’re not doing – a lack of exercise." (Dean Ornish,
1998)

Physical exercises have been considered as an essential part of human life. The
survival of man is physical and movement or the activity is the foremost important
thing one learns soon after birth. The literate meaning of ‘physical’ is ‘body’ which
strictly relates to physique, health, strength, endurance, speed, agility, flexibility,
and physical performance on the sports ground (Uppal, 2000). A well planned and
regular lifetime programmer of exercise will help us feel better, look better and
enable us to enjoy a much comfortable life than we may have been leading until
now. Exercise means treating our body with new respect, working with it instead of
against it. And all this should be fun. It is therefore important to select a method
that suits an individual and their personality (Ann Carpenter, 1984).

Recent attempts to promote active lifestyles through the Physical Education

programmer or supplements to it have generally been unsuccessful. Unequivocal
evidence from studies in the physical education activities research center show that
despite 10 years of a supposed emphasis to the promotion of active lifestyles, both
primary and secondary British school children exhibit very low levels of habitual
health related physical activities. This reaffirmed our view that physical educators
must promote active lifestyles more explicitly and that health related physical
activities must be a central issue in physical education, physical activities should
underpins the physical education programmer, and we endure the view of the

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British Association of Sports Sciences. These experiences need to be supported by a
theoretical framework, and pupil should develop understanding of health related
physical activity’s beneficial effects and the ways these benefits can be achieved and
sustained through adult life.

The goal of physical fitness programme is to improve the performance in activities of

daily living, job demands, sports and recreational activities which was said by Craig
Liebenson (2003). Physical fitness is the basic fitness of all other fitness. Physical
fitness is not only the most important ways to a healthy body but it is also the basis
of dynamic and creative activity. Physical fitness is the combination of strength,
speed, flexibility, agility and endurance. It is the ability to enjoy our lives and to
achieve our goals without undue fatigue or stress. Physical fitness varies from
person to person and different types of fitness are needed for different types of
profession.

A nation’s true wealth lies not in its land and waters, not in its forests and mines, not
in its flocks and hands, not in its dollars but in its healthy and happy men, women
and children.

“Sports is a physical activity which helps performance sports, physical education,

Fitness and Leisure sports, adventure sports, Rehabilitation sports, elaborate caters
to the requirements and demands of a particular section of a society”. (Craig
Liebenson, 2003) “Sports is a carrier which encourages coaching of various sports
and games along with rules and laws governed by them and also it prepares the
trainers to take active part in competitive sports.” (Craig Liebenson, 2003)

Sports aim at high sports performances and for that the physical and psychic
capacities of sportsmen are developed to extreme limits. This does not happen in
other area of human activity. As a result performance sports yield valuable
knowledge about the limits to which human performance factors can be developed.

Miller and Allen, (2002) states “Adequate muscular strength is extremely important
when an occupation demands it, in vigorous sports, and for those over 50 years of

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age as well as need to maintain minimal standards of muscular fitness in order to
avoid acute or chronic injury.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND ITS OBJECTIVES

Physical education and Sports in the modern world had tremendous changes in the
application method.

According to Nash (1953), “Physical education is one phase of the total education
process and it utilities activity derives inherent in each individual to develop a
person organically, neuromuscular, intellectually and emotionally. These outcomes
are realized whenever physical education activities are conducted in such places as
the playground, gymnasium, and swimming pool.”

The aim of Physical Education is the wholesome development of human personality

or complete living. According to William, a leading authority in the field of physical
education should aim to provide skilled leadership, adequate facilities and ample
time for the individual and the groups to participate in activities that are physically
wholesome, mentally stimulating and socially sound.(Kamlesh and Sarangal, 1991)

The aim of Physical Education must be to make every child physically, mentally and
emotionally fit and also to develop in him such personal and social facilities as well
help him to live happily with others and build him up as a good citizen. The term
objectives are used in general sense to include aims, purpose and outcomes that are
designed from participating in the physical education programme. In other words
participation in physical activities under expert leadership results in certain
constructive outcomes for the participants. These outcomes are called objectives.
(Clarke and Henry, 1961)

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Clarke and Henry (1961) proposed three objectives of Physical Education.

1. Physical Fitness

2. Social Efficiency

3. Culture.

Clarke’s objectives of physical fitness refer to that state in which an individual has
developed great endurance and is able to perform great endurance and is able to
perform his duty according to his capacity. The quality of keeping fit is essential for
leading a happy, vigorous and abundant to group living. This includes loyalty,
sportsmanship, co-operation with others, responsibility and initiative.

The third objective stated by Clarke and Henry (1961), is culture aiming at
developing a further understanding and appreciation of one’s own local
environment. Through participation in dance, games and sports a person develops
understanding about other countries moral and aesthetic values. Clarke has also
recorded objectives for girls. They are personal appearance and beauty, human
relationship recreational skill and appreciation.

Cowell and Schwehn (1961) classify the general and specific objectives of physical
education into five groups.

1. Organic Power.

2. Ability to Maintain adaptive effort.

3. Neuro-muscular co-ordination.

4. Personal, Social Attitude and Adjustments.

5. Interpretive and Intellectual development.

6. Emotional responses.

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 They discuss the organic development in term of strength and endurance
being able to resist fatigue. Their definition of neuro muscular development means
developing general motor ability, rhythm of movements and game, specific skills in
games and sports. In respect to personal and social attitude and adjustment, they
mean the developments of feelings of belonging, social poise, self-confidence.
Furthermore the interpretive and intellectual developments refer to ability to think
and solve problems. Finally this emotional responses a person enjoys and realizes
satisfaction from many challenges offered in mastering physical skills.

Nash (1953) listed four objectives of Physical Education. They are:

1. Organic development.

2. Neuromuscular development.

3. Interpretive development.

4. Emotional development.

By organic development he means the end results of training process that

achieves Physical power for the individual. This is development through big muscle
activity. By neuromuscular development, Nash means Cortical control over the
motor mechanism of human body, the ability to cut down waste motions.
Interpretive development is the training that helps an individual make judgment and
interprets situations correctly. By emotional development “Nash” means the driver
that result in action. A child must have confidence, must experience success and
must have feelings of belonging.

American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation (1980) listed the
following five major objectives,

i) To help Children move in a skilled and effective manner in all

selective activities in which they engage in the programme of
physical education.

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 ii) To develop understanding and appreciation of movements in
children and youth, so that their life become meaningful.

iii) To develop an understanding and appreciation of certain

scientific principles concerned with movements.

iv) The relationships through games and sports develop better

interpersonal relationships.

v) To develop various organic systems of the body, so that they

respond in a healthful way to increase demand place on them.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION FOR WHOLESOME DEVELOPMENT

“Nations have been born and nations have died. History gives the naked cause of it.
But in fact, people were not fit″. - Rudyard Kipling (1919) .

The belief today is that only the fittest shall survive and no individual can live
healthy life without the knowledge of physical education. It is not enough to educate
the children; it is with this subject to bring the complete growth in the personality
.H.C Buck (1932), “physical education is that part of the general education program,
which is concerned with growth development and education of the children through
the medium of his big muscle activities. It is the education of the whole child by
means of physical activities which are the tools. They are so selected and concluded
as to influence every aspect of child’s life emotionally, mentally, physically and
morally.

It is your own philosophy to view the physical education that it gears towards the
wholesome development of the children. Studying the philosophers and their views;
various philosophers have influenced the physical education (Bucher, 2001)

Idealism as a Philosophy of Physical Education

The idealists believe there is no matter in the world .All that exists is in mind or
spirit. The philosophy of idealism originates with the Greeks, particularly so with

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Aristotle. It is with him that the scheme of the world lies with the mind; the matter is
subordinate in its role to the mind. The idealists aim at achieving ideals and there is
a tendency to create perfection in everything in life. The highest aim of idealism is to
seek truth, beauty and goodness in all the things. And in Sanskrit, “SATYAM,
SHIVAM, SUNDARAM.” These ideals are with the Hindus also. In the spheres of
physical education, the Greek stressed upon the ideals of aesthetic, athletics and
mathematics .So, the individual is expected to live on the earth with athletic body
knowledge of mathematics which means all calculation in his working life and to
develop the sense of aesthetic (Hardayal Singh, 1991).

Plato and Aristotle believe that human body should possess an ideal body which
means harmoniously developed personality. The Greeks believed in,
copersena merasena, both human mind and body should be equally strong and
efficient .The thoughts that body and mind to be ideally strong so as to make the
soul strong. The Greeks were the ones, who gave us the ideals of building up ‘body
beautiful’. The males were expected to be fit, robust, muscular, and athletic and
bear a lovable and attractive personality. The females were to be in good
shape, proportionate, supple and attractive. The ideals of the body went to such an
extent that the elders of the society inspected every new –born child. On finding the
new- born baby crippled weak and with defect, they reserve it for Mt .Tigris and
expose to natural element till it died .The Greeks considered it necessary for every
physical fit male to take part in races and games like Olympic. (Bucher, 2001)

The characteristics of idealism are

1. Society set the norms and standards.

2. Every child is born with potentialities.

3. The teacher helps through training to let the child achieve those ideals.

4. The ideal man is a balanced personality which means both physically

and mentally fit.

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 5. The physical education program is ideal centered.

Naturalism as a philosophy of physical education

Every child has a natural instinct to play. From the very first cry when the child is
born till his death. The individual has basic instinct. That is also what makes one
person so different from others. It is nature or natural instinct, which inspires the
child to act and to grow and develop in certain ways. Nature thus is the first teacher
of every child play, or the tendency to play, being natural in child. Naturalism
advocates that child should be allowed to develop himself according to the natural
instincts. Teaching therefore is a self-learning process rather than something
imposed by society from above. The Characteristics of naturalism are (Bucher, 2001)

 Emphasis is on understanding the nature of things.

 Every man has inherited natural talents.

 Education should aim at developing natural talents.

 Physical education should train student to develop his natural talent.

 Education is not super imposition, but a natural path.

 Growth of an individual has to be composite, that is both physical and

mental.

Realism as a philosophy of physical education

This philosophy bases itself on science .It believes that since matter is dependent on
mind, it is necessary to develop mind through education .sound mind lives on sound
body. It is better to be unborn than to be ill taught .It is the physique or human body
which instigates man to think .They do not stress upon achievement. Competitions
are acceptable only to the extent that it helps students to develop himself further,
and not beyond his limitations.(Bucher, 2001)

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The characteristic of realism are

 The world should be looked up as it is, not as it should be.

 Idealism has lesser role.
 Realism is scientific in approach.
 The world is orderly; it works on the principle of cause and effect.
 Education should develop both physical and mental.

Pragmatism, as a philosophy of physical education

It is called experimentalism and this kind of philosophy believed in dynamism. Our

life lies in experience, and experience of life are ever changing .They are not static
.Practicability is the keynote of this philosophy. A pragmatist attaches importance to
what is socially acceptable .In this there is no theories; it is the dynamic experience
only (Bucher, 2001).

The characteristic of pragmatism are

 It is based on experience.
 Success is the criterion.
 There are less principle, more practice.
 The trial and error theory.

Existentialism, as a philosophy in physical education

Soren Kierkegaard (1844) is thought to be the father of this philosophy and

modern thinkers have too much emphasis on this philosophy. It is an individualistic
theory aimed at absolute freedom to the individuals in all the matters concurring his
life. A man is what he causes himself to become. He and not the society should be
responsible for his past present and the future. He determines the course of action
in the world. The values are his individual concern; everyone determines his own
value system .Super imposed or dictated values are meaningless and they do not
give opportunity to the individual to develop his personality. This philosophy gives
more important to man than society .Sometimes it is absurd to think that man is

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everything whereas society is nothing. In fact, it is the society that raises the
individual from the state of animals and makes him truly human. An existentialist
also fears that once a man subjugates his values, personality and ideals of those of
the society, he ceases to function as man and become an automation whose
concern ,then is limited to the orbit of obeying society at all cost (Bucher, 2001).

Characteristic of existentialism are

 It takes the bits of tenets from all the philosophies for the construction of
curriculum for each level of learning.
 This philosophy is elective or selective.
 It accepts ideas from all yet keep itself dynamic and susceptible to changes
for the benefit of the individual.

PHYSICAL FITNESS

Physical fitness is a universally accepted and realized terminology. Physical fitness is

a capacity to meet the present and potential physical challenges of life with success.
The present concept of physical fitness is not only freedom from disease, but also to
gain enough strength, agility, flexibility, endurance and skills to meet the demands
of daily life and to build sufficient reserve energy to withstand stress and strain.

Fitness improves general health and it is essential for full and vigorous living. The
physically fit child will be more alert and eager to do things. Children are the future
citizens of our country. The wealth of a nation depends entirely upon the health of
every citizen of the country. Hence physical fitness of school children is a major
important factor to be considered (Govindarajulu, 1991).

Physical fitness is an important outcome of physical education and it is physical

education in the school system that is most capable of bringing it out. The physical
fitness over a long span and examination of the same reflect the status of health.
Physical examination assesses the growth pattern and functional efficiency of
sensory and motor organs, functional efficiency of the body in terms of strength,

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cardio respiratory endurance, flexibility, speed, agility, balance and neuromuscular
co- ordination.

Physical fitness is a combination of qualities that enable a person to perform well in

vigorous physical activities. These qualities include agility, endurance, flexibility and
strength. Physical fitness and good health are not the same, though each influences
the other.

Physical fitness represents one of the several facets of sports and physical activity,
which can have definite influences on the health and the wellbeing of children and
adolescents, as well as adults. The measurement of physical fitness raises several
conceptual, methodological and technical problems, which explain why surveys
including such measures have been scarce until recently.(Michaud and Narring,
1991)

1. Physical Fitness for Wholesome Development

To balance physical fitness with all the other things we have going in our lives, many
of us prefer getting away with the minimum possible to keep healthy. That amount
might actually be quite a bit less than many may think. But a casual walk is not going
to do it. Fitness is measured by how fast our pulse rate returns to normal after being
above a certain level (Morehouse, 1975) .It is versatile, fun and requires a minimum
of the three exercise sessions of 10 minutes each per week. It is based on your heart
beat, so you progress at a pace that’s right for you. Each 10 minutes session is
divided into one minute of limbering, four minutes of muscle building (easy
exercises, no "pumping iron") and five minutes of continuous activity that raises
your heart beat to the calculated level for you.

Cardiovascular exercise is not the only type that’s important for good health. The
many systems that make up our body needs movement and exercise to keep them
regulated. For instance, our lymphatic system builds antibodies and drains toxins.
This is greatly aided by physical activity like yoga and even massage where we don’t

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get our heart rate up much. This is particularly important for people with health
limitations that restrict rigorous exercise.

There is also the concept from ancient Eastern teachings about energy meridians
along which life force travels, as used in acupuncture. Blocks along meridians results
in health problems. Some forms of exercise are specifically designed to help life
force flow freely. They include yoga, acupressure and Do-In. (Michio Kushi, 1985)
Peter Kelder, (1998) claims many long-term health benefits by doing 5 special yoga-
like exercises or rites practiced by Tibetan lamas. Each one is fairly simple and quick
at 3 repetitions per day each, but takes a while once you build up to 21 repetitions.

Another very interesting area of physical exercise is Educational Kinesiology (Edu-K)

and Brain Gym, developed by Dr. Paul Dennison (www.braingym.com). Edu-K
incorporates specific movement that activates the brain for optimal storage and
retrieval of information. It is also a process for re-educating the whole
mind/body system for greater efficiency. It is related to Brain Gym, which and
combines movement and learning to improve whole brain/body functioning.

Geared more for children, (Glenn Doman, et al., 2001) showed clearly each stage of
mobility and how to create an environment that will help a baby to achieve each
stage more easily. The Institute Developmental Profile is a delineation of the
significant stages of child brain development through which children pass as they
progress from birth to six years. They include many physical exercises that are good
for both children and adults.

SPORTS PARTICIPATION FOR WHOLESOME DEVELOPMENT

It has been observed that after religion, sport is the most powerful cultural force in
any nation. This sweeping generalization covers two domains: sports spectatorship
or viewership, and sports participation. The sports participation is the more
important, because it lends itself to that ineffable process called "youth
development”.

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From an adult viewpoint, youth sports participation serves four broad purposes

1. It provides children with "fun" and instant gratification;

2. It fulfills what social psychologists call the "affiliative" need friendship,

and a sense of belonging;

3. It offers the near-term prospect of healthier minds and bodies through

physical exercise;

This belief was implicit in the very creation of physical education, which
early on was abdicated by policymakers, legislators, healthcare providers and the
philanthropic community to the public schools, which by the end of the 20th century
had begun to fail abysmally in this obligation. A partial result of this failure is the
declining level of youthful physical activity, and a concomitant child obesity crisis
that according to some criteria, has achieved epidemic proportions. Nationwide,
only about 1 out of 4 teenagers take part in some form of physical education; from
1980 - 1999, the percentage of adolescents who were overweight nearly tripled
(from 5% to 14%) (Bucher, 2001).

The enormous power of sports can serve not only as a magnet for youth
recruitment; if properly harnessed, it offers remarkable leverage for youth
development outcomes in sports-dedicated programs. In a word: because of their
passion for sports, kids will stick with and thrive in an enrichment program, if that's
what it takes to stay on the team. And if we can make sports relevant to the
particular educational or enrichment curricula that underlie what is known as
"positive" youth development, the probability of successful outcomes will be
multiplied proportionately.

PERSONALITY FOR WHOLESOME DEVELOPMENT

Linking the playing fields of Eton to the battles of the British Empire is probably
more analogy than metaphor; the latter day connection between the sports
participation of underprivileged children and the goals of youth development is far

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more abstruse. How exactly can we link Soccer with "character-building"? Golf,
Tennis or Lacrosse with benevolence, fair-play, civic participation or integrity?

Little contemporary research exists on the practical application of the sports

metaphor. On the adult level, Dr. Robert Keidel's Game Plan: Sports Strategies for
Business (1985), related the dynamics of sports teams to management styles and
organizational forms. Character Development and Physical Activity (Shields &
Bredemeir 1995) offers the most exhaustive academic treatment of the application
of sport to moral development and character education. Ewing (1997) has discussed
the role of sports in social and moral development, emphasizing the on-field
contributions of parents and coaches to the younger child's evolving self-esteem,
social competence, sense of fairness, honesty and other values. Because the power
of abstract thinking is less developed in very young children, they cannot and
perhaps should not be "taught" precisely how sports experiences translate to the
building blocks of character development; suffice it that they internalize these
values through feedback, coaching, emulation, or other natural processes. In
addition to the acquisition of self-confidence and self-esteem, the moral principles
inherent in sharing, abiding by rules, "right-and-wrong", consequences of behavior,
cooperation, honesty, respect, and fairness can be learned on the playing field.
Later, the lessons can be taught more formally.

If we borrow a pedagogical technique pioneered by the great academic

philosopher John Dewey, sports can be made relevant to academic subjects, life
skills instruction, and to varying degrees — most aspects of youth development.
Dewey's method was simple, but required significant creativity — perhaps
explaining why it never entered the educational mainstream. His purpose was to
erase the distinction between the natural condition of the "real world" and the
artificial, coercive and to children, seemingly oppressive nature of the classroom. In
the process, he enlivened and enriched the educational experience by taking
mundane pursuits and occupations such as cooking, carpentry, sewing and weaving,
making them relevant to academic subjects such as arithmetic, physics, chemistry
and biology. Cooking for example, might invoke arithmetic (measuring and weighing

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ingredients) or physics (temperatures of boiling water); carpentry the subject of
geometry; weaving and sewing, geography etcetera.

A leap from sports to leadership, career goals, or morality would be a bit more
difficult, but not beyond the imagination of a good theorist. And there is nothing, we
have been told, so practical as a good theory even during the twilight of progressive
education.

An anecdote borrowed from the outstanding contribution of Milbrey W. McLaughlin

(Community Counts) illustrates how the sports experience can be linked to the
goals/outcomes of youth development. Successful programs, implied the research,
were among other things, accompanied by an interplay of specific rules and strict
expectations.

Beedy (1995) pioneered a Boston After School program called Sports PLUS.
This unique integration of sports participation and classroom learning creates a
"unit" for each of five character themes: teamwork, respect, responsibility, fair play
and perseverance, where children explore such complex issues as discrimination,
justice and violence. Reading serves as the primary instructional vehicle — honing
language skills, improving thinking ability, and teaching interpersonal values.

The early results of this 24-student pilot were very encouraging. Participants
increased their amount of reading, demonstrated an increased understanding of
character themes, and improved their ability to work together in small teams.

IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL FITNESS FOR HEALTH

Health and physical fitness are intimately related. Fitness includes Human strength,
freedom from diseases flexibility and elasticity in the body, smartness, balance
system endurance and co-ordination etcetera. The benefits of physical fitness are
many. The person who is physically fit who have greater strength, endurance and
have good sense to protect the body from injuries. The mobility and flexibility of the
body strengthen the muscles, joints, and bones.

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 Physical fitness is the ability of the body to adopt and recover from exercise.
Exercises are mild, moderate, severe and strenuous, were strenuous is the one’s
ability to work and play with serious and pleasure without undue fatigue. Physical
fitness is the ability to lost, to bear up and to preserve under difficult circumstances
where an unfit person would give up.

Bucher and Wuest (1987) states increased physical fitness not only improves health
but improves the performance at work. “Hundreds of American companies have
backed this idea financially by employing full time directors of fitness for their
workers.”

Physical fitness is only one component of the total fitness of the individual, it also
includes mental fitness social fitness and emotional fitness, Total fitness is a
comprehensive capacity for living.

PHYSICAL FITNESS FOR SPORTS PERFORMANCES

Physical fitness helps to enjoy physical activity sustain skills, learning and enhance
performance on the athletic field. Specific physiological systems of the body should
be doped to support a particular game. Since different games make different
demands upon the organism with respect to neurological, cardio-respiratory
systems are highly adaptable to exercise Bucher and Wuest (1987).

For a good performance in any sports or athletic event, the high standard of fitness
is a basic requirement. More participation in sports activity is not enough to improve
fitness. The fitness must be gained through conditioning programme. Hardayal
Singh (1991) for achieving high sports physical fitness is regular and systematic
training over eight to ten years or more is required to achieve the required level of
physical fitness.

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PHYSICAL FITNESS FOR COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

The cognitive developmental level of children aged 0-3 years does not allow them to
rate their perceived exertion during a handgrip task. From 4 to 7 years of age, there
is a critical period where children are able to progressively rate at first their
peripheral sensory cues during handgrip tests, and then their cardio respiratory cues
during outdoor running in an accurate manner. Between 8 and 12 years of age,
children are able to estimate and produce 2-4 cycling intensities guided by their
effort sense and distinguish sensory cues from different parts of their body.
However, most of the studies report that the exercise mode and the rating scale
used could influence their perceptual responsiveness. During adolescence, it seems
that the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) - heart rate (HR) relationship is less
pronounced than in adults. Similar to observations made in younger children, RPE
values are influenced by the exercise mode, test protocol and rating scale.
(Groslambert and Mahon 2006).A latent physical fitness trait, derived by principal
components analysis of the measures of grip strength, 6 minutes’ walk time, and
lung function, was significantly associated with successful cognitive aging. Higher
childhood IQ was associated with better lung function in old age. It was concluded
that Physical fitness is associated with cognitive reserve. Intervention studies aimed
at making older people fitter are good candidates to improve cognitive aging (Deary
et al. 2006)

A positive relationship between physiological indicators of physical fitness (such as

aerobic capacity) and indices of cognitive performance was noted by (van Boxtel et
al., 1996). However, the complexity and cost of methods to measure physical fitness
prohibit their use in large-population studies in cognitive aging research. Besides the
benefits conferred by physical fitness, the following advantages act powerfully in the
psycho-somatic domain.

i) Decreases the risk for Chronic Diseases and Illness.

ii) Increases levels of energy and job productivity.

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 iii) Slows down the aging process.

iv) Relieves tension and helps in hoping with stress of life.

v) Improves self-image and morale and aids in fighting depression.

vi) Motivate towards positive life style change.

vii) Facilitates quick recovery following injury or disease.

viii) Decreases recovery tissue following physical exertion.

ix) Regulates and improves overall body function.

x) Eases the process of child bearing and child birth.

xi) Improves the overall quality of life.

Preparing our nation's children to meet the demands of the 21st century by
acquiring the knowledge and skills needed to be successful and productive citizens
has been the focal point of the recent educational reform movement in India.
Students in our nation's schools are being held accountable to high academic
standards. To this end, many states have initiated standards based education to
improve academic achievement in each of the areas of the school curriculum. These
standards indicate what a student should know and be able to do at specified points
in their academic careers. Physical education has not been exempt from this reform
at the national level. In 1995 the National Association for Sport and Physical
Education (NASPE) defined a physically educated person as one who has "the
knowledge, skills, and confidence to enjoy a lifetime of healthful physical activity"
and subsequently developed content standards for physical education. Since that
time, individual states have developed standards in health and physical education.
This may be viewed as an attempt to combat the sedentary lifestyles plaguing many
of our youth by providing knowledge and skills that will influence students' decisions
to pursue an active lifestyle. The development of the content standards may also
suggest that physical education is being viewed as an important means in promoting

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health and wellness that may, in turn, influence students to lead physically active
lifestyles.

It is important to examine student attitudes toward their curriculum as they can

have a large impact on the success of a class. Attitudes develop at an early age and
can be changed based on situational contexts such as a particular teacher or the
class environment (Aicinena, 1991). In other words, a student's attitude toward a
particular subject in school can be shaped by his/her perception of the teacher or
instructional setting. Attitudes toward physical activity and perceptions about
physical education classes are important to understand as they can influence an
individual's decision to begin or to continue participation in an activity (Lee, Kang,
and Hume, 1999; Silverman and Subramaniam, 1999).

Studies have examined attitudes and perceptions of students of all ages toward
physical education (e.g., Barney, 2003; Bowyer, 1996; Stewart, Green, and
Huelskamp, 1991; Tannehill and Zakrajsek, 1993). However, only a limited number of
recent studies have been conducted that assess secondary students' attitudes and
their perceptions toward physical education (Carlson, 1995; Greenockle, Lee, and
Lomax, 1990; Luke and Sinclair, 1991; Scantling, Strand, Lackey, and Mc Aleese,
1995; Tannehill, Romar, O'Sullivan, England, and Rosenberg, 1994).

There are several variables that influence high school students' attitudes towards
physical education. Carlson (1995) examined high school students' negative
attitudes toward physical education and found that some students did not feel
physical education filled a need in their lives and consequently did not find it
valuable. A lack of student input gave some students a feeling of powerlessness
thereby making them feel as though they did not have any control over what
happened in the gymnasium. This finding concurs with Aicinena (1991) who
hypothesized teachers who allow some input into classroom decisions while
maintaining control of instructional processes may foster positive attitudes toward
physical education.

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Finally, Carlson (1995) concluded students who were less skilled felt isolated from
their peers because they were not readily included in team activities or they were
ridiculed for their lack of skill. Tannehill et al. (1994) also found students with
negative attitudes felt uncomfortable or unsafe learning and practicing physical
skills. These students did not participate in class or they used strategies to avoid
conflict with the teacher. These attitudes were the same regardless of gender.

Health and physical fitness have a vital role in the life of men from time immemorial.
The progress of the Nation lies in the hands of the people, who are healthy and
physically fit. Every individual should develop physical fitness for a happy and
effective living. In order to get physical fitness one has to involve in physical
activities.

Physical activity is essential for the development of wholesome personality of a child

which would depend upon the opportunities provided for wholesome development
of the mental, physical, social and spiritual aspects. Hence a well-organized and
properly administered physical education programme for school children is very
essential.

Physical activity throughout the ages has been acclaimed for health and recreation.
It provided fun and enjoyment. It also provided youthful exuberance and the elderly
care. Physical activity and movements are as old as human existence. It played
numerous roles from struggle for existence to struggle for excellence.

A sport is an activity in our lives where pursuits of different movement achieved

through the total investigation of Neuro – muscular co-ordination. In this modern
era, we can see that each and every individual directly or indirectly related to sports.
Modern Physical Education commonly known as there is sports where pursuit of
discipline freely formed such as biological, social and physical sciences.

Over decades, the society in general has realized the need for keeping fit and health
through organized physical activity programme. Scientific evidence has made with a

20
clear and that unless man engages himself in organized vigorous physical activity
programme. The real benefits would not come.

Many researchers strongly support the regular exercises helps one to keep a strong
and healthy and to prevent cardio vascular diseases. Physically fit person, heart
beats at a lower rate and pumps more blood per beat at rest. As a result of regular
exercises and individual’s capacity to use oxygen is increased systematically energy
production depends on internal chemical or metabolic change.

Health, Fitness and performance are poorly correlated phenomena. Health is

generally defined as the freedom from disease, fitness strictly relates to a man’s
ability to meet the demands of his environment and excellence in performance.

Meaning of Physical Fitness

Most authors define ‘physical fitness’s the capacity to carry out every day activities
without excessive fatigue and with enough energy in reserve for emergencies.
Emphatically this definition is inadequate for a modern way of life. By such a
definition almost anyone can classify himself as physically fit Gatchell (1977)

According to Clarke (1971) Physical fitness is the ability to carry out daily task with
vigor and alertness without undue fatigue and ample energy to enjoy leisure time
pursuits and to meet unforeseen emergencies.

Fitness is a broad term denoting dynamic qualities that allow to satisfy the needs
regarding mental, emotional stability special consciousness and adoptability spiritual
and oral fear and organic health are consistent with heredity. Physical fitness means
that the organic system of the body is healthy and function efficiently vigorous tasks
and leisure activities beyond Organic development, muscular strength and stamina.
Physical fitness implies efficient performance in exercises Bucher and Prentice
(1985)

21
Importance of physical fitness

Every individual must know the importance of physical fitness. In other words, one
must have a fundamental knowledge of anatomy and physiology. This fundamental
knowledge enables person to understand physical fitness. Physical fitness is the
capacity of a person to function steadily and smoothly when a situation arises.

Physical fitness makes you feel mentally sharper, physically comfortable and more
with your body and better able to cope with the demands that everyday life makes
upon you.

Increased physical fitness not only improves health but improves your performance
at work. Hundreds of American companies have backed with idea financially by
employing full time directors of fitness for their work. Gorden Jackson(1985)

The benefits of physical fitness are numerous. The person who is physically fit has
greater amount of strength, energy and stamina an improved sense of wellbeing
better protection from injury because strong well developed muscles safeguard
bones, internal organs and joints and keep moving parts limbers and Improved
cardio respiratory function Bucher and Prentice (1985)

It is necessary for every individual to be physically fit to perform their daily work
with ease and to take part in various activities effectively. Everyone should be fit
enough through participation in physical activities to develop [p the different
physical fitness components.

Physical Education and Physical Fitness

The primary aim of physical education is not to develop star athletes, winning team
of expert performance but a national vitality with character values and physical
fitness. It aims to develop youth into citizen who have the capacity to enjoy vigour
and interesting life. Mathews (1967)

According to Falls, (1971) “Physical fitness is an important objective of physical

education programme and the programme is directed toward achieving the

22
objectives through specific development exercises as well as games and activities
that help to improve physical fitness”.

Harrison Clark (1971) opines “Neuromuscular coordination of individual which

include his ability to learn new skill finally to achieve competency in physical
activities in essential to all phase of physical education”.

The Need for Fitness Education

Fitness is that state which characterizes the degree to which a person is able to
function efficiently. Fitness is an individual matter. It implies the ability of each
person to live most effectively within his potentialities. Falls (1980)

Physical activities help a man achieve high degree of physical conditioning. In

schools there is a compulsory physical activities programme for all boys and girls, so
it would be interesting to find out which of the components have better physical
fitness. There are many physical fitness tests to evaluate the ability of the students
to carry out daily tasks without undue fatigue.

THE IMPACT OF QUALITY PHYSICAL EDUCATION ON HEALTHY LIVING

The public is generally aware that being healthy is important. However, the public
may not know, or understand, the importance of physical education. Opinions
regarding past physical education experiences in school often distort the link
between quality physical education and personal health. Central to the association
between physical education and health is the teacher. Teachers trained as physical
educators exhibit higher levels of effective teacher behaviors (Constantine’s et al.,
2013) and create quality physical education programs. Trained physical education
teachers can achieve, for example, greater physical fitness improvement in children
than physical education teachers who lack appropriate training (Starc & Strel, 2012).

According to the latest Shape of the Nation Report (NASPE, 2012), both the National
Association of Sport and Physical Education and the American Heart Association
believe physical activity achieved through participation in physical education

23
improves one’s overall well-being and is one of the best preventers of significant
health problems linked to many chronic diseases (e.g., obesity, high blood pressure,
and high cholesterol). No other school subject has the potential to fulfill these health
needs. If schools are to make a positive impact on our children’s’ health now and in
the future, physical education must be present in schools, be taught by qualified
teachers, and focus on healthy behaviors.

THE IMPACT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION ON MOTOR SKILLS

The acquisition of motor skills is important for children. Proficient motor skills lead
to feelings of competence and results in more competent performance during sport
and recreational sport-like activities. In one example, Barnett et al. (2011) found that
children who develop proficient object control skills (e.g., throwing, catching, and
kicking) were more likely to become physically active later in life. Overall, there is
ample evidence to support the link between motor skill development during
childhood and long-term physical activity (e.g., Lopes et al., 2010; Okely et al., 2001;
Wrotniak et al., 2006). Likewise, there is sufficient evidence to support the
connection between low motor proficiency and lower physical activity (Williams et
al., 2008; Wrotniak et al., 2006).

The importance of motor skills is recognized by SHAPE America (2014), who require
physical education teachers to develop students who “demonstrate competency in a
variety of motor skills and movement patterns.” The importance of effective
teachers is not only exposed within national standards but in research as well. For
example, McKenzie and Lounsbery (2014) recently reported that the potential of a
physical education program to effectively teach students’ skills is closely tied to the
quality of the physical education teacher (e.g., the skills and behavior they display).
They also propose, from their data analyses, that effective physical education
programs must include assessments and the use of data to support subsequent
curricula.

24
THE IMPACT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION ON BRAIN FUNCTION AND ACADEMIC
ACHIEVEMENT

Proponents of physical education often declare that participation in their subject

area has a positive impact on academic achievement. If these assertions are to be
believed, we must specifically look at the impact of a standards-based physical
education curriculum. A standards- based physical education curriculum follows an
appropriate set of objectives and goals based on national recommendations. All five
national standards capture goals grounded in physical activity and movement
(SHAPE America, 2014). Therefore, since physical activity is a primary focus in
physical education curricula, the relationship between physical education and
academic achievement may be observed though the potential academic benefits of
physical activity.

Research literature consistently reports that children who participate in quality

physical education are physically active outside of the school setting. We know that
the activities in which students are taught during physical education (e.g., sports,
games, exercise) are directly related to activities and sports students participate in
outside of school (Eddy, 2011).

Andruschko (2013) found well-planned physical education curricula, in comparison

to poorly planned programs, to have potentially large benefits on children’s physical
activity outside of the school. Another study reported that physical education
increases daily physical activity and decreases sedentary time in middle school age
children (Chen et al., 2014). In the long term, Trudeau et al. (1999) found daily
primary school physical education to have a strong positive effect on the exercise
habits of adults.

To note, brain function includes cognitive skills while academic achievement

includes learning behaviors (e.g., on-task behavior, planning, and organization) and
performance on subject-area standardized tests and other formal assessments. In a
recent unpublished report, Darla Catelli described how brain scans reveal cognitive
function improvement in active children who returned to resting intensities prior to

25
undertaking cognitive tasks (Schneider, 2014). She also found vigorous and intense
physical education is related to optimal gain in cognitive performance,
improvement, and speed.

THE BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION ON LEARNING IN THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN

It has been long established in education that there are three key learning domains
that make up the foundation of teaching and learning: psychomotor, cognitive, and
affective (Bloom, 1974). The affective learning domain encompasses the social,
emotional and psychological components of life, including getting along with others,
respecting physical and cultural differences, developing an appreciation for fitness
and physical activity for longevity and overall health and wellness, working with
partners and within groups successfully, respecting authority, embracing fair play
and sportsmanship, and increasing self-esteem, to name just a few examples.

Two of the five national standards for physical education require physical educators
to teach students “responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and
others” and the “value of physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-
expression and/or social interaction” (SHAPE America, 2014). Physical education
curriculum includes teaching and learning opportunities that address social, moral
and emotional areas of growth and development. Students in physical education
classes experience the benefits of teaching, skill development, cognitive learning,
sport play, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity on their social and emotional
well-being.

INTERNATIONAL SCENARIO

Today, despite Participation in sports activities are available and relatively

cheap; however, few people would like to pay to physical activity and exercise.
Although from the theoretical point, almost everyone knows that sporting activities
can enhance physical health and also is an entertainment, but unfortunately from
the practical point view, a few are interested in regular exercises. Physical activity,

26
fitness and relaxation have many benefits for the human body. According to the
findings of Abdullah and Fauzee (2002) physical activity can be very effective in
improving the human respiratory system, while strengthening the heart muscle and
increasing its volume is the benefits of physical activity. People with physical activity
and those who exercise regularly are able to adopt an active lifestyle, have an
attractive appearance and changes in mood and experience confidence (Abdullah &
Fauzee, 2002).

Bouchard et al. believed (1990) physical activity can be described as an

activity that involves stimulus throughout the body that results human skeleton
muscles contraction and increases energy levels (Bouchard, TJ; Lykken, McGue,
Tellegen, & Segal, 1990). According to Silverman & Subramaniam (1999), student
perceptions and positive attitude towards physical activity is one the important
elements in evaluating the success of a physical education curriculum. They believed
develop and strengthen students' attitudes toward sports is the instructors and
coaches key task (Silverman & Subramaniam, 1999). To Kosma's view (2003) sports
activities is empowerment especially important to empower people with disabilities.
This belief clearly indicates that physical activities are required for all regardless of
the differences between men and women. Physical activity not only affects
individual’s weight loss and healthy preservation but also helps individuals in social
relationships with others (Kosma, 2003).

Abdullah and Fauzee (2002) showed that when people are engaged in
physical activity their relation between each other is an important factor (Abdullah
& Fauzee, 2002). Safania (2006) studied attitude and rate partnership of Sari Islamic
Azad university students in physical activity. Results showed more than 75 present
of subjects believed regular partnership at recreational exercises result health,
physical fitness, improvement athletic skills level and finally increase social skill level.
However, they stated factors such as shortage of sport facilities, shortage of
financial resources, lack of time and interest are the most important barriers to
participate in physical activities (Safania, 2006).

27
 Agamollaeei et al. (2008) in a review of efficacy, benefits and perceived
barriers to regular physical activity among students of Hormozgan university of
Medical Sciences, found that from 249 one just 66 ones or 5.26 present had regular
physical activity (Aghamollaeei, Tavafian & Hasni, 2008). Samadi et al. (2006) also
showed 9.60 present of individuals had average awareness about physical activity.
The most important barriers were lack of time, lack of facilities availability, shortage
of necessary facilities at work and life and inadequate facilities availability (Samadi,
Sanaeenasab, Delavari, Tavakoli & Taghi-Zadeh, 2006). In this regard, Mojtahedi and
Delawar (2002) showed the tendency of boys to sports is more than girls (Mojtahedi
and Delawar, 2002). Attarzadeh and Sohrabi (2007) conducted a research in
Mashhad. They found 32 percent of individuals did not participate in physical activity
(Attarzadeh Hosseini, & Sohrabi, 2007). At Describing the attitude and the tendency
of people to sports activities, Mozaffari et al. (1389) Showed 5.34 percent of
subjects had no physical activity, while there was not significant in general attitude
of the male and female subjects toward exercise and physical activity (Mozaffari,
Kalate Ahani, Shajee & Hadavi, 2010).

Azmoon (2011) in comparison of Iranian male and female student

perceptions about physical education and school sport showed that most Iranian
girls and boys had the same opinion about school physical education and sport
which helps them to be healthy and fit (Azmoon, Mozaffari & Zhodavi, 2010). Ziai et
al. (2006) in another study about the amount of physical activity in Iranian students
showed that the average amount of moderate daily physical activity with moderate
and high intensity was respectively, 4.7 and 0.8 hours a day. Activities with a high
degree of mobility during guidance and high schools were higher than elementary.
The mean activity of moderate and vigorous activities in boys was more than girls,
which the difference was statistically significant (Ziaee, Kelishadi, Ardalan,
Gheiratmand, Majdzadeh & Motagian Monazzam, 2006).

Hajian and Heydari (2007) in a study on women and girls in northern Iran
showed those who were exercising around 3 to 4 hours per week, decrease 60
Percent of their likelihood of being obese than those who do not exercise at all

28
(Hajian-Tilaki & Heidari, 2007). In addition, the benefits of exercise are stress
reduction and prevention of coronary heart disease (Vilhjalmsson & Kristjansdottir,
2003). Figley (1985) after two decades research, was interested in this aspect,
especially which previous physical education experiences lead to positive or negative
attitudes toward physical education courses. Using of important events, 100
students were asked to recall the experiences of their physical education courses,
and provide a list of the aspects that lead to positive and negative attitudes towards
some of these courses. Results showed that the behaviour of teachers, curriculum
content and classroom climate were the three major factors affect students in
positive and negative trends (Figley, 1985).

According to many researchers, such as Chase (2000), Iverson et al. (1985),

Sallis (1987), and Sallis and McKenzie (1990), due to the high percentage of students
enrolled in PE classes, this program has been recognized as the ideal environment to
promote physical health. However, according to U.S. DHHS, daily attendance of
students in physical education classes has dropped from 42 to 25 present from 1991
to 1995 (US Department of Health and Human Services, 1996). This question is
raised again due to the reluctance of students enrolled in physical education classes.
Perhaps one of the causes is the decline of students’ attitude towards physical
activity. Carlson (1994) reported that factors influencing the development of student
attitudes have been the cultural (gender, sexual and psychological differentiation
pattern of athletes), social (family, media, sports and physical education business,
skill level and perception of fitness level of himself and peers and school (Teachers)
(Carlson, 1994). Other researchers, such as Luke and Sinclair (1991) understood that
teachers have the greatest impact from the various factors influencing positive or
negative attitude toward physical education lessons (Luke & Sinclair, 1991).

According to some studies of Carlson, 1994; Park, 1995; Rice, 1988, those
students generally enjoy physical education classes, they have a positive attitude
toward physical education and they select physical education teachers as the
desired behavioural patterns (Carlson, 1994; Rice, 1988). Or scholars such as Simon -
Morton et al., (1987) and Tannehill et al. (1994) found that the most positive

29
experiences of students with physical education classes are linked with a variety of
activities, winning, success, good performance, teamwork and activities involving joy
and happiness (Simon-Morton, O'Hara, Simon-Morton, & Parcel, 1987; 56).

According to Rice (1988) the most interest in physical education programs

has been playing group games and the lowest appeal one was the theory of classes
(Rice, 1988). Silverman and Subramaniam (1999) Found that most students tend to
participate in activities that are of greatest pleasure (Silverman and Subramaniam,
1999). Other researchers (Carlson, 1994; Portman, 1995) in their studies concluded
that students hated physical education courses have been resentment of
participation in physical activity in their daily life (46, 23). According to Simon -
Morton et al. (1987) people do not exercise or do not participate in physical activity,
because they did not have any positive experiences from physical exercises in
adolescence (Simon-Morton, O'Hara, Simon-Morton, & Parcel, 1987).

Gillam (1986) found more than 90 present of students believed that physical
education was associated with their future life and for subsequent periods of useful
life and the lessons of physical education in school curricula is mandatory (Gillam,
1986). The results of Reichlor (1998) showed that physical activity not only improve
physical function, but also is effective for people with emotional health, she believes
that the benefits of physical activity programs should be taught to the students in
physical education curriculum (Reichlor, 1998). Elsewhere Mowatt et al. (1988)
reported that beliefs of students about the importance of physical activity in
physical education courses will be stronger if its dimensions are described in a purely
theoretical discussion by the teachers (Mowatt, DePauw, & Hulac, 1988). Since the
gender and age play an important role in people's attitudes toward physical
education, the attitudes of girls and boys of different ages in many studies were
compared (Colley, Berman & Van Millingen, 2005; Folsom-Meek, 1992; Smoll &
Schultz, 1980; Birtwistle & Brodie, 1991; Hicks, Wiggins, Crist, & Moode, 2001).

According to Scully & Clarke (1997), Koca et al. (2005) participatory patterns
of girls and boys were different in sports (Scully & Clarke (1997), Koca, AMçO, &

30
Demirhan, 2005). Boys compared with girls percent participation in team sports and
muscular, especially football, while girls prefered individual sports and aesthetic or
percent a more subtle ones. Women's favourite sports were those include fitness
components such as skating, gymnastics and swimming, and sports more interested
by men were those requires physical strength and with a high risk such as boxing,
football, rugby and Rally (Portman, 1995).

Many studies have been done to find factors that can predict athletic
performance goal of students, but no clear result has been obtained. For example,
the National Association of Physical Education and Sport (2003) has shown that
adolescents 12 to 14 years are interested in sports more than 15 to 17 year olds
(Scully & Clarke, 1997). In rejecting these findings, Ryan et al. (2003) reported 38
percentages of secondary school students and 28 percent of high school students do
not like physical education classes (Ryan, Fleming & Maina, 2003).

The findings of Irwin (2007) showed that 65 percentage of students due to

lack of correct perception of exercise cannot determine and diagnose their
appropriate levels of physical activity for his health (Irwin, 2007). In some studies,
family history, access to sports facilities, important athletes, have been highlighted
as important factors, but in Garcia et al. beliefs (1995) none of them can be known
or considered as the most important factor.

INDIAN SCENARIO

Education is the process by which the individual is shaped to fit into the society and
which maintains and advances the social order. It is a systematic process designed to
make man more rational, mature and knowledgeable. Education is the modification
of behaviour of an individual for his own personal happiness, for his better
adjustment in society and for making him a successful citizen. Education should help
every individual to become all he is capable of becoming. Education must be
concerned with developing optimum growth, optimum organic health, vitality,
emotional stability, social consciousness, knowledge, wholesome attitude, spiritual
and moral qualities. Physical education has a vital role to play as an integral part of

31
general education which aims at enabling an individual to live an enriched and
abundant life in every changing world. The physical education is an integral part of
the educational process which uses physical activity as a primary means to promote
psychomotor cognitive and socio-affective growth in order to enhance the quality of
life. Thus physical education strives to achieve the aim of education through or by
means of large muscle activity

Researchers in the field of Physical Education (PE) indicated that identifying and
understanding the factors that are associated with children’s physical activity
participation are critical to the promotion of current and lifelong physical activity
participation (Chung and Phillips, 2002; Ding et al., 2006; Sallis et al., 2000). Among
many factors, the children’s attitude is considered to be a key factor that influences
physical activity participation (Chung, M. and D.A. Phillips, 2002; Ding et al., 2006;
Hagger et al., 1995; Solmon, 2003).

Rikard and Banville (2006) stated that attitudes are born from beliefs that one’s has
about him or herself and things. Attitudes shape ones’ behaviors in many ways and
determine ones’ involvement in him or her daily activities (Rikard and Banville,
2006). Developed a theoretical framework for a rational action, their framework
further explained attitudes flow come from beliefs and yield intentions and actions.
While intentions are a function of two basic determinants: (a) one’s personal
attitude toward a behavior and (b) one’s attitude toward others (i.e., peers,
teacher/leader and parents). The first determinant is the individual’s positive or
negative evaluations for performing the behaviour; It just as Silverman and
Subramaniam (1999) indicated: generally, with positive beliefs one will have a
favourable attitude toward the object of the beliefs; otherwise one will possess an
unfavourable attitude toward the object of the beliefs [28]. The second determinant
is the person’s perception of social pressure to perform or not perform the
behaviour based on the evaluation of others. Therefore, an attitudinal consideration
and a normative consideration are formed that exert different degrees of power
toward influencing one’s behaviours for more positive or negative responses (Rikard
and Banville, 2006).

32
Strand and Scantling (1994) pointed out that people express their beliefs and
attitudes daily through behaviours and language. In PE, obtaining students’ insight
into their beliefs is a critical source for understanding their attitudes and their
interests and involvement toward their PE program (Strand and Scantling, 1994).
Researchers indicated that children who have more positive attitudes toward
physical activity are reported to be more likely to participate in physical activity
outside of school (Chung and Phillips, 2002; Ding et al., 2006; McKenzie, 2003;
Portman, 2003) and demonstrate higher physical activity levels (Hagger et al.,
19985) than those with less positive attitudes. According to a review of literature on
children’s Attitudes toward Physical Education/Activity (ATPEA) by Solmon (2003),
children’s characteristics and contextual factors are two major factors that are
related to children’s attitudes.

Children’s characteristics refer to children’s age, gender and sports skill. Contextual
factors include the quality of physical education programs and the accessibility of
after school physical activities. With regard to children’s characteristics, elementary
children are found to have more positive attitudes than secondary school children
(Lee, 2004; Martin, 2000; Solmon and Carter, 1995; Xiang et al., 2004) and children’s
attitudes become less positive as they progress through their schooling (Biddle and
Mutrie, 2008; Lee, 2004; Prochaska et al., 2003; Xiang et al., 2004). It is also found
that elementary school children express very favourable attitudes toward health,
fitness, enjoyment and social interaction benefits of physical activity, but do not
enjoy physical activities involving hard practice and risk-taking movements
(Patterson and Faucette, 1990). Lee (2004) found that the younger children possess
more positive attitudes toward physical activity and show more interests toward all
kinds of physical activities. However, the reliability of younger children responding
to questions might need to be carefully considered due to their lower self-evaluation
ability (Lee, 2004).

With regard to contextual factors, the quality of physical education programs has
been reported to be a strong factor influencing children’s ATPEA, Subramaniam and
Silverman (2002) indicated that school children’s positive attitudes are likely to be

33
associated with enjoyment, perceived usefulness of the curriculum and a sense of
belongingness [33] . Curriculum with situational interests, such as those requiring
students to analyze and design offensive and defensive strategies, may foster
students’ interests in physical activity (Chen and Darst, 2001). A learning
environment that promotes personal meaning is considered to be important to the
development of positive attitudes (Rink, 2006). Children are also likely to become
more positive toward physical activity if they are in a learning environment that
makes them comfortable and confident (Hagger et al., 2003).

Carlson (1995) indicated that students would lose interest in physical activity if the
subject matter lacks challenges or the instructors repeat the same class activities
without bringing fun to the children [4]. Siedentop (2004) also argued that a multi-
activity curriculum with a series of short-term units would negatively influence the
attitudes of students toward physical education. In contrast found that it is difficult
for students to maintain interests in traditional team sports than in individual sports
or activities. Additionally, Tannehill et al. (1994) found that, if physical education in
school curricula becomes a marginal status, it would have a negative impact on
students’ attitudes (Subramaniam and Silverman, 2007).

Gender difference is another factor that has been addressed in children’s ATPEA
research. In the studies comparing the differences of attitudes toward physical
education between girls and boys by Birtwistle and Brodie (1991), Folsom-Meek
(1992) and Hick et al. (2001), girls were found more favorable ATPEA emphasizing
aesthetics, whereas boys were found more positive ATPEA in challenging and risk-
taking activities (Folsom-Meek, 1992; Papaioannou, 1994). Specifically, Greenwood
and Stillwell, (2001) reported that boys demonstrated strong interests in archery,
bowling, flag football and wrestling, whereas girls preferred gymnastics, softball and
volleyball (Greenwood and Stillwell, 2001). Furthermore, boys were reported to
have more positive attitudes than girls toward physical activities bringing them risk-
taking experiences, whereas girls were more positive than boys in physical activities
with beautiful and graceful movements (Colley et al., 1994; Hick et al., 2001;
Parkhurst, 2000). Subramanian and Silverman (2002), however, did not find gender

34
difference in attitudes between boys and girls toward physical education
(Subramaniam and Silverman, 2007).

With regard to children’s sports/activities preferences, Greenwood and Stillwell

(2001) found that children had strong interests in basketball, bicycling, roller-
skating, soccer, swimming and volleyball and had little interests in folk or square
dancing, badminton, field hockey and floor hockey (Greenwood and Stillwell, 2001).

Parkhurst, (2000) conducted a study to compare the attitudes toward physical

activity and physical activity levels of sixth grade children in different ethnic groups.
Parkhurst found that African American boys possessed more positive attitudes in the
ascetic sub domain than African American girls. Regardless of ethnicity, boys
possessed higher physical activity levels than girls (Parkhurst, 2000). Concerning
Socio-Economic Status (SES), limited research has been conducted to examine how
SES affects children’s attitudes toward physical activity and participation in sports
and physical activities. Since 1990, there has been an increase in the body of
knowledge in children’s ATPEA. The increased interest in this topic might be
attributed to the influence of attitudes toward further participation in physical
activities after school (e.g., studies by (Papaioannou, 1994; Strand and Scantling,
1994; Subramaniam and Silverman, 2002; Tannehill et al., 1994) and further
participation in physical activities out of school that related to achievements in
students’ sport competition (Graham et al., 2007; Lee, 2004; Strand and Scantling,
1994; Subramaniam and Silverman, 2002).

Researchers also reported that students tend to participate in physical activities

continually when they perceive the activities to be fun and enjoyable (Silverman and
Subramanian, 1999). As most of the previous studies were conducted at the
elementary and middle school levels, examining the ATPEA of high school students is
important. New York City (NYC) is the most populous and diverse city in the United
States. The City is the center of international finance, politics, entertainment and
culture. The City includes the largest population of immigrants from over 180
countries. Moreover, the City contains the largest public school system in the nation,

35
with over 1 million students taught throughout 1,200 separate schools. To the
knowledge of the investigators, no studies have been conducted to examine
students’ ATPEA and sports/activities preferences in this City where both the
educational system and the students’ population possess the most diverse
characteristics on earth. Hence, the purpose of this study was to examine the
current status of ATPEA and sports/activities preferences of the high school students
in the City of New York.

ATTITUDES TOWARD PHYSICAL EDUCATION OF SCHOOL GOING ADOLESCENTS IN

WEST BENGAL: FROM KNOWN TO UNKNOWN

In West Bengal, Physical Education has been aptly introduced as a compulsory

subject in secondary (Madhyamik) school curriculum from early seventies of the past
century. This physical education has gained much popularity among the teachers
and the students. However, truly speaking, in society, this type of education has not
yet found its proper place as it deserves. Now, to increase the acceptability of
physical education among the students, their positive attitude towards physical
education should be increased.

Attitudes play an important role in order for people to be successful in their work.
However, people are not born with those attitudes; they obtain them afterwards. In
other words, attitudes are developed through learning and they change and develop
in time. Considering the fact that students at the secondary stage of education are
also at the stage of adolescence, it is recognized that during that period students’
attitudes to physical education lesson start to form. Accordingly, the positive-
negative attitudes of students to the physical education lesson in this period shall be
an important determinant of their participation in physical activities outside of
school, in the current process, and in the future. Actually adolescence is a time when
personal limits are explored and lifetime attitudes and patterns of living begin to be
established. For this reason there is current concern about the low levels of fitness
among adolescents and their attitudes toward physical education and activity, as
these factors are considered to be crucial in the development of a healthy and active

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adult lifestyle. In recent years there has been mounting evidence that supports the
health related benefits that are gained by individuals who engage in moderate levels
of physical activity. One document in particular, Physical Activity and Health, A
Report of the Surgeon General, has been a landmark publication which clearly
presents those benefits. Unfortunately, as the research supporting the benefits of
physical activity becomes more apparent, many segments of our population are still
not adhering to the call, opting instead for a sedentary lifestyle. In an attempt to
combat the levels of sedentary lifestyles that are plaguing many of our young
people, health professionals are calling upon middle and high school physical
education to equip students with the skills and knowledge necessary to become
physically active for a lifetime. Physical education lessons in school could play an
important role in the promotion of regular involvement in physical activities and a
healthy lifestyle in general due to primary goal of physical education is to develop
positive student attitudes that promote lifelong physical activity.

In order for physical education to accomplish this goal, it is also essential that
student attitudes be considered when making curricular and programme decisions.
Up to this point, student voices have been rarely considered--this is especially true
for and high school students. Subsequently, little is known about which aspects of
high school physical education evoke positive or negative attitudes in students. This
information, if available could assist practitioners, teacher educators, and curriculum
developers in providing optimal physical education experiences for high school
students. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine high school students'
attitudes toward a physical education programme which might help to determine
the various aspects of the programme that appear to contribute to positive and
negative attitudes toward school physical education. Gender plays an important
mediating role in attitudes toward physical education. Many studies have compared
girls’ and boys’ attitudes. In these studies, boys were found to display more positive
attitudes toward physical activities that were challenging and had an element of risk,
whereas girls showed more favourable attitudes toward physical activities
emphasizing aesthetics.

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A quick review of related literature shows that physical education takes a crucial role
in education. Truly to educate our future generation and to help them to lead
healthy and prosperous life, side by side with general education physical education
in its augmented total quality is to be introduced from early school level.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objectives of this research are as follows

 To find out the differences in young people’s physical activity according to

gender.

 To find out difference in young people’s physical activity according to school

year.

 To find out whether there is any difference in young people’s attitudes

towards physical education according to gender.

 To find out whether there is any significant difference in young people’s

attitudes towards physical education according to school year.

 To find out whether there is any significant difference in young people’s

health related fitness according to gender.

 To find out whether there is any significant difference in young people’s

health related fitness according to school year.

 To find out whether there is any significant relationship between young

people’s physical activity and attitude towards physical education.

 To find out whether there is any significant relationship between young

people’s physical activity and health related fitness.

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DELIMITATIONS

 The study was delimited to the adolescent school going children.

 Though there are various ways and means to measure the body fat
percentage, BMI was considered for this study. The consideration of BMI
was based on ease of administration, accuracy of the result and feasibility.
 All the schools covered under this study were state medium schools of West
Bengal.
 Though there are many measures for Attitude towards physical activity,
Physical Activity Attitude Inventory was administered to collect data
 Only Body fatness was considered among all the variables of health related
physical fitness, for this study.

LIMITATIONS

 The level of motivation of the subjects in filling up the questionnaire might

have acted as a limitation of the study.
 The generalizability of some results may have been limited since participants
were delimited to West Bengal State only.
 As the subjects had different socio-economic status, it’s quite logical to add
this as a limitation of this particular study.
 Even after the enough care taken by the researcher the changing weather
condition might have affected the response of the individuals.
 Researcher has considered only the adolescents for the purpose of this
study and hence this may limit the external validity of the outcome of the
study.

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HYPOTHESES

On the basis of the literature gone through by the researcher

following hypotheses were formed.

Hypothesis1 – There will be a significant difference in young people’s physical activity

according to gender and school year.

Hypothesis2 -- There will be significant difference in young people’s attitudes

towards physical education according to gender and school year..

Hypothesis3 – There will be significant difference in young people’s health related

fitness according to gender and school year.

Hypothesis4 – There will be significant relationship between young people’s

physical activity, attitude towards physical education and health
related fitness.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The proposed study will help to understand present status and attitude towards
physical activity, with relation to their health related fitness of adolescent school
students. This knowledge will definitely help the administrators and policy makers to
formulate suitable programmes to motivate and develop their lifetime activity
behaviour among students. The knowledge about the physical activity of the
students will help the teachers and councillors to better understand the way of
thinking of the future generation.

The survey will help to analyse the link between the individuals’ attitude towards
physical activity and gender differences. The study will also help to identify specific
features of sport orientation and locus of control and their interrelation, analyse the
relationship between attitude towards physical activity and future aspirations of the
individual and identify the relationship between athletes and non-athletes on locus
of control. Attitude towards physical activity of known athletes can be improved
through counselling, motivation and introduction of certain minor games.

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The physical education teachers, coaches, trainers and administrators can make
teaching/ coaching / training plans according to the attitude, sport orientation and
locus of control level of the students to get fruitful results in their endeavour. We
must foster participation in co-ed sports, in order that men and women may learn to
accept and understand one another better. Sport has historically been a good
starting ground for relationships between people of different ethnicities and
different races, why not between the sexes?

DEFINITION OF THE TERMS

Facilities

Facilities are the infrastructures that have been available in an institution for the
purpose of the beneficiaries to attain the objectives of the institution. (Bucher,
2001)

Play Grounds

Play grounds are spaced in the form of play fields, indoor or outdoor, set apart for
the benefit of the students to carry out the physical education and sports
activities. (Hardayal Singh, 1991)

Sports Equipments

The equipments, instruments and goods that have been used for the carrying out
specific physical activity or game or sport are considered as sports equipments.
(Thomas, 1977)

Sports Period

The time allotted by authorities for the purposes of physical education and sports
programmes. (Thomas, 1977)

Sports Participation

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The number of students who participate in the inter-class and inter-school
competitions and tournaments at various levels were considered as sports
participation of the students. (Thomas 1977).

Physical Fitness

“The ability to perform daily tasks vigorously and alertly with energy left over for
enjoying leisure time activities and meeting emergency demands. It is the ability to
endure, to hear up, to withstand stress, to carry on in circumstances where an
unfit person could not continue, and is a major basis for good health and well-
being.” (Bucher,2001)

Gender

Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviour, activities and attributes
that a particular society considers appropriate for men and women. The distinct
roles and behaviour may give rise to gender inequalities, i.e. differences between
men and women that systematically favour one group. In turn, such inequalities
can lead to inequities between men and women in both health status and access
to health care. Sports become stereotyped as gender-neutral, feminine, or
masculine based on conceptions regarding gender, gender differences, and beliefs
about the appropriateness of participation due to gender (Colley et al., 1987;
Csizma, Wittig, & Schurr, 1988; Koivula, 1995; Matteo, 1986). Sports labelled as
feminine seem to be those that allow women participants to act in accordance
with the stereotyped expectations of femininity (such as being graceful and
nonaggressive) and that provide for beauty and aesthetic pleasure (based on
largely male standards). A sport is labelled as masculine if it involves the following:
1) attempts to physically overpower the opponent(s) by bodily contact; 2) a direct
use of bodily force to a heavy object; 3) a projection of the body into or through
space over distance; and 4) face-to-face competition in situations in which bodily
contact may occur. These characteristics are believed to be appropriate
expressions of masculine attributes such as aggressiveness, effectiveness, and
power (Metheny, 1965; Koivula, 2001).

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Attitude

An attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's degree of

like or dislike for an item. Attitudes are generally positive or negative views of a
person, place, thing, or event-- this is often referred to as the attitude object.
People 12 can also be conflicted or ambivalent toward an object, meaning that
they simultaneously possess both positive and negative attitudes toward the item
in question. Attitudes are judgments. They develop on the ABC model (affect,
behaviour, and cognition). The affective response is an emotional response that
expresses an individual's degree of preference for an entity. The behavioural
intention is a verbal indication or typical behavioural tendency of an individual.
The cognitive response is a cognitive evaluation of the entity that constitutes an
individual's beliefs about the object. Most attitudes are the result of either direct
experience or observational learning from the environment. A positive attitude
toward exercise may be the primary determinant of a physically active lifestyle
(Terry, 1996). Allport (1947) introduced the classic definition of attitude as a
"mental and neural state of readiness, organized through experiences, exerting a
direct or dynamic influence upon the individual's response to all objects and
situations with which it is related". Attitudes are directed toward attitude objects
such as classes of people, objects, or ideas. Thus if a person has a positive attitude
towards physical fitness then his behaviour should reflect this attitude (Gill, 1986).

Physical activity

Physical activity is an important part of both a healthy lifestyle and a child’s daily
routine says, Sallis (1993). Development of good health and fitness habits in
childhood is associated with physical fitness as an adult (Harsha, 1995).
Participation in physical activity is an important part of a child’s normal
psychosocial development and self-image.

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