ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT ANAYLYSIS

Course Objectives
 To introduce the basic concepts of electric circuits and the fundamental to analyze
DC electric circuits.
 To enable students, understand and apply the fundamental laws and theorems to
the analysis of AC circuits.

Course Desecrations
Basic concepts, basic laws, method of analysis and network theorems of DC circuits,
transformation techniques, natural and forced response of 1st and 2nd order systems.
sinusoidal and phasor, steady state single phase ac circuit analysis, three phase circuits, ac
power analysis, magnetically coupled circuits, frequency response.

Course Contents
 Basic concepts
 Fundamentals of dc circuit analysis
 Natural and forced response of 1st and 2nd order circuits
 Steady state single phase ac circuit analysis
 Magnetic coupled circuits
 Three phase circuits

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 Chapter one: Basic concepts
1.1. INTRODUCTION

Electric circuit theory and electromagnetic theory are the two fundamental theories upon
which all branches of electrical engineering are built. Many branches of electrical engineering,
such as power, electric machines, control, electronics, communications, and instrumentation,
are based on electric circuit theory. Therefore, the basic electric circuit theory course is the
most important course for an electrical engineering student, and always an excellent starting
point for a beginning student in electrical engineering education. Circuit theory is also valuable
to students specializing in other branches of the physical sciences because circuits are a good
model for the study of energy systems in general, and because of the applied mathematics,
physics, and topology involved.
In electrical engineering, we are often interested in communicating or transferring energy from
one point to another. To do this requires an interconnection of electrical devices. Such
interconnection is referred to as an electric circuit, and each component of the circuit is known
as an element.
An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements.
A simple electric circuit is shown in Fig. 1.1. It consists of three basic components: a battery,
a lamp, and connecting wires. Such a simple circuit can exist by itself; it has several
applications, such as a torch light, a search light, and so forth.

 Figure 1.1

A simple electric circuit.

1.2. ATOMS AND THEIR STRUCTUR

A basic understanding of the fundamental concepts of current and voltage requires a degree of
familiarity with the atom and its structure. The simplest of all atoms is the hydrogen atom,
made up of two basic particles, the proton and the electron, in the relative positions shown in
Fig. 1.2(a). The nucleus of the hydrogen atom is the proton, a positively charged particle. The
orbiting electron carries a negative charge that is equal in magnitude to the positive charge
of the proton. In all other elements, the nucleus also contains neutrons, which are slightly
heavier than protons and have no electrical charge. The helium atom, for example, has two

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neutrons in addition to two electrons and two protons, as shown in Fig. 1.2 (b). In all neutral
atoms the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons.

Figure 1.2: atomic structure of hydrogen and Helium atom

1.3. CHARGE AND CURRENT

The concept of electric charge is the underlying principle for explaining all electrical
phenomena. Also, the most basic quantity in an electric circuit is the electric charge. We know
from elementary physics that all matter is made of fundamental building blocks known as
atoms and that each atom consists of electrons, protons, and neutrons. We also know that the
charge e on an electron is negative and equal in magnitude to 1.602×10 -19 C, while a proton
carries a positive charge of the same magnitude as the electron. The presence of equal numbers
of protons and electrons leaves an atom neutrally charged.
Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists, measured in coulombs (C).
In 1 C of charge = 6.24 × 10 18 electrons.
When a conducting wire (consisting of several
atoms) is connected to a battery (a source of
electromotive force), the charges are compelled to
move; positive charges move in one direction while
negative charges move in the opposite direction.
This motion of charges creates electric current. It is
conventional to take the current flow as the
movement of positive charges, that is, opposite to
the flow of negative charges, as Fig.1.3 illustrates.
Although we now know that current in metallic
conductors is due to negatively charged electrons,
we will follow the universally accepted convention
that current is the net flow of positive charges. Figure 1.3: Basic electrical circuit and conventional current flow

Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes (A).

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Mathematically, the relationship between current i, charge q, and time t is

If the current does not change with time, but remains constant, we call it a direct current (dc).
A direct current (dc) is a current that remains constant with time. By convention the symbol
I is used to represent such a constant current.
A time-varying current is represented by the symbol i. A common form of time-varying current
is the sinusoidal current or alternating current (ac).
An alternating current (ac) is a current that varies sinusoidal with time. Such current is
used in your household, to run the air conditioner, refrigerator, washing machine, and other
electric appliances.
Figure 1.4 shows direct current and alternating current; these are the two most common types
of current.

Figure 1.4: Two common types of current: (a) direct current (dc), (b) alternating current (ac)

The current in amperes can now be calculated using the following equation:

1.4. VOLTAGE

To move the electron in a conductor in a particular direction requires some work or energy
transfer. This work is performed by an external electromotive force (emf), typically
represented by the battery. This emf is also known as voltage or potential difference. The
voltage vab between two points a and b in an electric circuit is the energy (or work) needed to
move a unit charge from a to b; mathematically,

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Where w is energy in joules (J) and q is charge in coulombs (C). The voltage vab or simply v is
measured in volts (V), named in honor of the Italian physicist Alessandro Antonio Volta, who
invented the first voltaic battery.
Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a unit charge through an
element, measured in volts (V).
1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb = 1 newton meter/coulomb
Current and voltage are the two basic variables in electric circuits. The common term signal is
used for an electric quantity such as a current or a voltage (or even electromagnetic wave)
when it is used for conveying information. Engineers prefer to call such variables signals rather
than mathematical functions of time because of their importance in communications and other
disciplines.
Like electric current, a constant voltage is called a dc voltage and is represented by V, whereas
a sinusoidal time-varying voltage is called an ac voltage and is represented by v. A dc voltage
is commonly produced by a battery; ac voltage is produced by an electric generator.
In general, the potential difference (volts) between two points is determined by
Where W=work done in joules
Q=charge in coulombs

1.5. ELECTRICAL POWER AND ENERGY

Although current and voltage are the two basic variables in an electric circuit, they are not
sufficient by themselves. For practical purposes, we need to know how much power an electric
device can handle. We all know from experience that a 100-watt bulb gives more light than a
60-watt bulb. We also know that when we pay our bills to the electric utility companies, we
are paying for the electric energy consumed over a certain period of time. Thus power and
energy calculations are important in circuit analysis.
Power is an indication of how much work (the conversion of energy from one form to another)
can be done in a specified amount of time, that is, a rate of doing work. For instance, a large
motor has more power than a small motor because it can convert more electrical energy into
mechanical energy in the same period of time. Since converted energy is measured in joules
(J) and time in seconds (s), power is measured in joules/second (J/s). The electrical unit of
measurement for power is the watt (W)

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To relate power and energy to voltage and current, we recall from physics that:
Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts (W).
We write this relationship as:
Where p is power in watts (W), w is energy in joules (J), and t is time in
seconds (s).
The power delivered to, or absorbed by, an electrical device or system can be found in terms
of the current and voltage

But
So that
The power absorbed or supplied by an element is the product of the voltage across the element
and the current through it. If the power has a + sign, power is being delivered to or absorbed
by the element. If, on the other hand, the power has a - sign, power is being supplied by the
element. But how do we know when the power has a negative or a positive sign?
Current direction and voltage polarity play a major role in
determining the sign of power. It is therefore important that
we pay attention to the relationship between current i and
voltage v in Fig. 1.5(a). The voltage polarity and current
direction must conform to those shown in Fig. 1.5(a) in order
for the power to have a positive sign. This is known as the
passive sign convention. By the passive sign convention,
current enters through the positive polarity of the voltage. In
this case, p = +vi or vi > 0 implies that the element is
absorbing power. However, if p = −vi or vi < 0, as in Fig. Figure 1.5. Reference polarities for
power using the passive sign convention:
1.5(b), the element is releasing or supplying power. (a) Absorbing power,
(b) Supplying power.

Passive sign convention is satisfied when the current enters through the positive terminal of
an element and p = +vi. If the current enters through the negative terminal, p = −vi.

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For example, the element in both circuits of Fig. 1.6 has an absorbing power of +12 W because
a positive current enters the positive terminal in both cases. In Fig. 1.7, however, the element
is supplying power of −12Wbecause a positive current enters the negative terminal.

Figure 1.6. Two cases of an element with an Figure 1.7. Two cases of an element with an
absorbing power of 12 W: absorbing power of 12 W:
(a) P = 4 × 3 = 12 W, (a) P = 4 × 3 = 12 W,
(b) P = 4 × 3 = 12 W (b) P = 4 × 3 = 12 W

In fact, the law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in any electric circuit. For this reason,
the algebraic sum of power in a circuit, at any instant of time, must be zero:

Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules ( J).The electric power utility
companies measure energy in watt-hours (Wh), where 1 Wh = 3,600 J

Good to know: The kilowatthour meter is an instrument for measuring the energy supplied to the
residential or commercial user of electricity. It is normally connected directly to the lines at a point just
prior to entering the power distribution panel of the building.

1.6. BASIC CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

As we discussed in the previous Section, an element is the basic building block of a circuit.
An electric circuit is simply an interconnection of the elements. Circuit analysis is the process
of determining voltages across (or the currents through) the elements of the circuit.
There are two types of elements found in electric circuits: passive elements and active
elements. An active element is capable of generating energy while a passive element is not.
Examples of passive elements are resistors, capacitors, and inductors. Typical active elements

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include generators, batteries, and operational amplifiers. Our aim in this section is to gain
familiarity with some important active elements.
1.6.1. ENERGY RESOURCES
The most important active elements are voltage or current sources that generally deliver power
to the circuit connected to them. There are two kinds of sources: independent and dependent
sources.
An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a specified voltage or
current that is completely independent of other circuit variables.

Figure 1.8. Symbols for independent Figure 1.9. Symbol for independent
voltage sources: current source. The arrow indicates the
(A) Used for constant or time-varying voltage, direction of current i.
(B) Used for constant voltage (dc).

An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in which the source quantity
is controlled by another voltage or current.
Dependent sources are usually designated by diamond-shaped symbols, as shown in Fig. 1.10.
Since the control of the dependent source is achieved by a voltage or current of some other
element in the circuit, and the source can be voltage
or current, it follows that there are four possible
types of dependent sources, namely:
1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).
2. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).
3. A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).
4. A current-controlled current source (CCCS).

Figure 1.10. Symbols for:

(a) Dependent voltage source,
(b) Dependent current source.

Dependent sources are useful in modeling elements such as transistors, operational

amplifiers and integrated circuits.
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An example of a current controlled voltage source is
shown on the right-hand side of Fig. 1.11, where the
voltage 10i of the voltage source depends on the
current i through element C. you might be surprised
that the value of the dependent voltage source is 10i
V (and not 10i A) because it is a voltage source. The
key idea to keep in mind is that a voltage source
comes with polarities (+ −) in its symbol, while a Figure 1.11. Symbol for independent
current source comes with an arrow, irrespective of current source. The arrow indicates the
direction of current i.
what it depends on.
1.6.2. RESISTANCE
Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the flow of electric charge.
This physical property, or ability to resist current, is known as resistance and is represented
by the symbol R.
The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area is determined by the
following four factors:
 Material type
 Length of the material
 Cross-sectional area
 Temperature of the surrounding

The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area A depends on A and its
length l, as shown in Fig. 1.12(a). In mathematical form,

Where ρ is known as the resistivity of the material in ohm-meters. Good conductors, such as
copper and aluminum, have low resistivities, while insulators, such as mica and paper, have
high resistivities. Table 1.1 presents the values of ρ for some common materials and shows
which materials are used for conductors, insulators, and semiconductors .
TABLE 1.1 Resistivities of common materials.

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 The circuit element used to model the current-resisting
behavior of a material is the resistor. The circuit symbol
for the resistor is shown in Fig. 1.12(b), where R stands
for the resistance of the resistor. The resistor is the
simplest passive element. The unit of measurement of
resistance is the ohm, for which the symbol is Ω.

Figure 1.12. (a) Resistor,

(b) Circuit symbol for resistance.

1.6.3. CAPACITANCE

A capacitor is a circuit component designed to store electrical charge. If you connect a dc

voltage source to a capacitor, for example, the capacitor will “charge” to the voltage of the
source. If you then disconnect the source, the capacitor will remain charged, i.e., its voltage
will remain constant at the value to which it had risen while connected to the source.

Capacitance is the electrical property of capacitors: it is a measure of how much charge a

capacitor can hold.

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by an insulator. One of its basic forms is the
parallel-plate capacitor shown in Figure 1.13. It consists of two metal plates separated by a
non-conducting material (i.e., an insulator) called a dielectric. The dielectric may be air, oil,
mica, plastic, ceramic, or other suitable insulating material.

Figure 1.13: capacitor (a) basic construction (b) symbol

The amount of charge Q that a capacitor can store depends on the applied voltage. Experiments
show that for a given capacitor, Q is proportional to voltage. Let the constant of proportionality
be C. Then from figure 1.14
Rearranging terms yields

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The term C is defined as the capacitance of the capacitor. As indicated, its unit is the farad.
By definition, the capacitance of a capacitor is one farad if it stores one coulomb of charge
when the voltage across its terminals is one volt.

Figure 1.14. 

Capacitor after charging. When the source is
disconnected, electrons are trapped on the
bottom plate. Thus, charge is stored.

Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is directly proportional to plate area, inversely

proportional to plate separation, and dependent on the dielectric. In equation form,

Where area A is in square meters and spacing d is in meters. The constant 𝜖 is the absolute
dielectric constant of the insulating material. Its units are farads per meter (F/m). For air or
vacuum, 𝜖 has a value of 𝜖𝜊 =8.85 x 10 -12 F/m. For other materials, 𝜖 is expressed as the
product of the relative dielectric constant, 𝜖𝑟 (shown in Table 1.2), times 𝜖𝜊 That is,

TABLE 1.2 Relative Dielectric Constants (Also Called Relative Permittivities)

1.6.4. INDUCTANCE
Self-inductance (usually just called inductance) is a circuit property that is due entirely to the
magnetic field created by current in a circuit. The effect that inductance has on circuit
operation is to oppose any change in current.
A circuit element built to possess inductance is called an inductor. In its simplest form an
inductor is simply a coil of wire, Figure 1.15(a). Ideally, inductors have only inductance.
However, since they are made of wire, practical inductors also have some resistance.

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  On circuit diagrams and in equations, inductance is
represented by the letter L. Its circuit symbol is a coil as
shown in Figure 1.15(b). The unit of inductance is the
henry.

 Inductors are used in many places. In radios, they

are part of the tuning circuit that you adjust when
you select a station. In fluorescent lamps, they are
part of the ballast circuit that limits current when the
lamp is turned on; in power systems, they are part of
the protection circuitry used to control short-circuit
currents during fault conditions.
Figure 1.15: Inductance is due to the magnetic field
Created by an electric current
(a) Basic indictor coil
(b) Inductor symbol

By definition, the inductance of a coil is one henry if the voltage created by its changing current
is one volt when its current changes at the rate of one ampere per second.

1.7. ELECTRICA CIRCIUT BASIC LAWS

The previous sections introduced basic concepts such as current, voltage, and power in an
electric circuit. To actually determine the values of these variables in a given circuit requires
that we understand some fundamental laws that govern electric circuits. These laws, known as
Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws, form the foundation upon which electric circuit analysis is
built.
In this section, in addition to these laws, we shall discuss some techniques commonly applied
in circuit design and analysis. These techniques include combining resistors in series or
parallel, voltage division and current division. The application of these laws and techniques
will be restricted to resistive circuits in this chapter.

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COMMAN TERMS
Branch: A branch represents a single element such as a
voltage source, current source, or a resistor, capacitor and
inductor.
Node: A node is the point of connection between two or
more branches.
Path: if no nodes was encountered more than once, the set
of nodes and elements that we have passed through is
defined as path:
Loop: A loop is any closed path in a circuit. A loop is a
closed path formed by starting at a node, passing through
a set of nodes, and returning to the starting node without
passing through any node more than once.
1.7.1. OHM’S LAW
Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854), a German physicist, is credited with finding the relationship
between current and voltage for a resistor. This relationship is known as Ohm’s law.
Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly proportional to the current i
flowing through the resistor.

That is,

Ohm defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be the resistance, R Thus, the
above proportionality becomes

 Which is the mathematical form of Ohm’s law.

R in the above equation is measured in the unit of ohms, designated, Ω. Thus,

The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric current; it is
measured in ohms (Ω).
R=V/I

The value of R can range from zero to infinity, it is important that we consider the two extreme
possible values of R. An element with R = 0 is called a short circuit, as shown in Fig. 1.16(a).
For a short circuit, showing that the voltage is zero but the current could be anything.

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 A short circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching zero. In practice, a short
circuit is usually a connecting wire assumed to be a perfect conductor.

Similarly, an element with R =∞ is known as an open circuit, as shown in Fig. 1.16(b). For
an open circuit, indicating that the current is zero though the voltage could be anything.

An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching infinity.

Figure 1.16. 

(a) Short circuit (R = 0),
(b) Open circuit (R =∞).

A useful quantity in circuit analysis is the reciprocal of resistance R, known as conductance

and denoted by G:

Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current; it is measured in mhos

( ℧) or Siemens (S).

The power dissipated by a resistor can be expressed in terms of R.

1.7.2. KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS

Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits. However, when it is coupled with
Kirchhoff’s two laws, we have a sufficient, powerful set of tools for analyzing a large variety
of electric circuits. Kirchhoff’s laws were first introduced in 1847 by the German physicist
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887). These laws are formally known as Kirchhoff’s current
law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or
a closed boundary) is zero.
A node is the point of connection between two or more branches or elements. And is usually
indicated by a dot in a circuit.
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Mathematically, KCL implies that

Where N is the number of branches connected to the node and in is the nth current entering (or
leaving) the node. By this law, currents entering a node may be regarded as positive, while
currents leaving the node may be taken as negative or vice versa.
In the other words KCL states that the sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the
sum of the currents leaving the node.

EXAMPLE 1.1

Determine the magnitude and correct direction of the

currents I3 and I5 for the network of figure 1.17

Figure 1.17: For example 1.1 to apply KCL

Solution:
Although points a and b are in fact the same node, we treat the points as two separate nodes
with 0 Ω resistance between them. Since Kirchhoff’s current law must be valid at point a, we
have the following expression for this node:

And so

Similarly, using Kirchhoff’s current law at point b gives

Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed
path (or loop) is zero. Or the applied voltage of a series circuit equals the sum of the voltage
drops across the series elements.

OR

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A loop is any closed path in a circuit. Or a closed loop is any continuous path that leaves a
point in one direction and returns to that same point from another direction without leaving
the circuit
To illustrate KVL, consider the circuit in Fig.1.18. The
sign on each voltage is the polarity of the terminal
encountered first as we travel around the loop. We can
start with any branch and go around the loop either
clockwise or counterclockwise. Suppose we start with the
voltage source and go clockwise around the loop as
shown; then voltages would be −v1,+v2,+v3,−v4, and +v5, in
that order Thus, KVL yields
Figure 1.18: A single-loop circuit illustrating KVL

Rearranging terms gives

Which may be interpreted as:

EXAMPLE 1.2
For the circuit in Fig. 1.19, find voltages v1 and v2 by
applying the concept of KVL

Figure 1.19: for example 1.2 to apply KVL

Solution :
To find v1 and v2, we apply Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
Assume that current i flows through the loop as shown.
From Ohm’s law,

Applying KVL around the loop gives

Substituting V1 and V2, we obtain

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Therefor

The following to rules are based on KCLand KVL

 Current divider rule
 Voltage diviver rule
SERIES RESISTORS AND VOLTAGE DIVIER RULE
The need to combine resistors in series or in parallel occurs so frequently that it warrants
special attention. The process of combining the resistors is facilitated by combining two of
them at a time.
Two or more elements are in series if they are cascaded or connected sequentially and
consequently carry the same current.

With this in mind, consider the single-loop circuit of Fig.

1.20.and apply KVL.

Figure 1.20: circuit to apply voltage

divider rule

Applying ohm’s law to each of the resistors.

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Implying that the two resistors can be replaced by an equivalent resistor Req; that is,

The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series is the sum of the
individual resistances.
For N resistors in series then

The voltage across each resistor in figure 1.20 is then

----------------- This is called voltage divider rule

In general, if a voltage divider has N resistors (R1, R2... RN) in series with the source voltage
V, the nth resistor (Rn) will have a voltage drop of

PARALLEL RESISTORS AND CURRENT DIVDER RULE

Two or more elements are inparallelif they are connected to the same two nodes and
consequently have the same voltage across them

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Consider the circuit in Fig 1.21, where two resistors are connected in parallel and therefore
have the same voltage across them. From Ohm’s law,

Or

Figure 1.21: circuit to apply current

divider rule

Applying KCL at node a gives the total current i as

Where Req is the equivalent resistance of the resistors in parallel:

We can extend to the general case of a circuit with N resistors in parallel. The equivalent
resistance is,

Given the total current i entering node a in Fig. 1.21, how do we obtain current i1 and i2? We
know that the equivalent resistor has the same voltage, or

Therefore
---------this is called current divider rule

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SERIES AND PARALLEL INDEPENDENT SOURCES

1. Voltage source in series

Voltage sources can be connected in series to increase or decrease the total voltage applied
to a system. The net voltage is determined simply by summing the sources with the same
polarity and subtracting the total of the sources with the opposite. The net polarity is the
polarity of the larger sum.

2. Current source in parallel

If two or more current sources are in parallel, they may all be replaced by one current source
having the magnitude and direction of the resultant, which can be found by summing the
currents in one direction and subtracting the sum of the currents in the opposite direction.

Chapter two: fundamental of dc circuit analysis

2.1. METHODS OF ANALYSIS
Having understood the fundamental laws of circuit theory (Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws),
we are now prepared to apply these laws to develop three powerful techniques for circuit
analysis: nodal analysis, which is based on a systematic application of Kirchhoff’s current law
(KCL), mesh analysis, which is based on a systematic application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law
(KVL) and source transformation techniques. The three techniques are so important that this
chapter should be regarded as the most important in the book.
2.2.1.SOURCE TRANSFORMATION

A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source vs in series with a

resistor R by a current source is in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.

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 Figure 2.1: Transformation of independent sources.

The two circuits in Fig. (2.1) are equivalent—provided they have the same voltage-current
relation at terminals a-b.

Source transformation also applies to dependent sources, provided we carefully handle the
dependent variable. As shown in Fig. (2.2), a dependent voltage source in series with a resistor
can be transformed to a dependent current source in parallel with the resistor or vice versa.

Figure 2.2: Transformation of dependent sources.

We should keep the following points in mind when dealing with source transformation.
 The arrow of the current source is directed toward the positive terminal of the voltage source.
 Source transformation is not possible when R = 0, which is the case with an ideal voltage source.
Similarly, an ideal current source with R =∞
 A source transformation does not affect the remaining part of the circuit.

Example 2.1
Use source transformation to find vo in the circuit
shown in figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3: for example 2.1 to apply source transformation

Solution:
We first transform the current and voltage sources, then combining the 4 Ω and 2 Ω resistors
in series and transforming the 12-V voltage source. We now combine the 3 Ω and 6Ω resistors
in parallel to get 2Ω. We also combine the 2A and 4A current sources to get a 2A source.

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We use current division in Fig. (c) Above to get
And

2.2.2.NODAL ANALYSIS

It is a technique used to determine current and the voltage in a circuit elements by solving set
of equations that are formulated by applying KCL at the nodes of a circuit of the variables.
These equations are node voltages which are defined with respect to a common point (node )
also called Reference node in the circuit .the node voltage can be determine by solving
equations using any appropriate method : Gaussian elimination or Cramer’s rule
Nodal analysis provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits using node voltages as the
circuit variables given a circuit with n nodes without voltage sources, the nodal analysis of the
circuit involves taking the following steps.
 Step1: Select one node as reference node usually the node with the largest number of
voltage source or components connected to it.
 Step2: Number the remaining N-1 nodes sequentially
 Step3: Identify a node voltage at each node except the reference node and a current
with every element in the circuit
 Step4: If the circuit contains only independent current, write N-1 linearly independent
simultaneous equations using KCL.
 Step5: If the circuit contains an independent voltage source, as supper-node enclosing
these source is created and a constraint equations for this source is written in addition
to the KCL equation for the supper-node and the remaining non-reference node.
 Step6: If the circuit contains a dependent source, treat the dependent source as though
it were an independent source, when writing the N-1 independent node equations and
then write one additional equation for the controlling parameter of dependent source.
 Step7: Solve the equations for the node voltages of your interest.

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 EXAMPLE 2.2

Calculate the node voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.4(a).

Solution:
Consider Fig. 2.4(b), where the circuit in Fig. 2.4(a) has been
prepared for nodal analysis. Notice how the currents are selected for
the application of KCL. Except for the branches with current
sources, the labeling of the currents is arbitrary but consistent. (By
consistent, we mean that if, for example, we assume that i2 enters
the 4Ω resistor from the left-hand side, i2 must leave the resistor
from the right-hand side.) The reference node is selected, and the
node voltages v1 and v2 are now to be determined.
At node 1, applying KCL and Ohm’s law gives

 Equ (1)
At node 2, we do the same thing and get

Figure 2.4: For Example 2.2: (a) original circuit

(b) Circuit for analysis

Rearranging the above equation gives

Equ (2)

Now we have two simultaneous Equ (1) and Equ (2). We can solve the equations using any
method (elimination technique, Cramer’s rule or a mat lab software package) and obtain the
values of v1 and v2.
METHOD 1: Using the elimination technique, we add Equ. (1) and (2).

Substituting v2 = 20 in Equ. (1) Gives

METODE 2: To use Cramer’s rule, we need to put Equ. (1) and Equ.(2) in matrix form as

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The determinant of the matrix is

We now obtain v1 and v2 as

If we need the currents, we can easily calculate them from the values of the nodal voltages.

2.2.3.NODAL ANALYSIS WITH VOLTAGE SOURCES

We now consider how voltage sources affect nodal analysis. We use the circuit in Fig. 2.5 for
illustration. Consider the following two possibilities.
CASE 1: If a voltage source is connected between
the reference node and a non-reference node, we
simply set the voltage at the no reference node
equal to the voltage of the voltage source. In Fig.
2.5, for example,

CASE 2: If the voltage source (dependent or

independent) is connected between two non-
reference nodes, the two non-reference nodes
form a generalized node or super-node; we
apply both KCL and KVL to determine the node Figure 2.5: circuit with super-node
voltages.

A super-node is formed by enclosing a (dependent or independent) voltage source

connected between two non-reference nodes and any elements connected in parallel with it.

2.2.4.MASH ANALYSIS
It is a technique used to determine the current and voltage in the circuit by solving set of
equations that are formulated by applying KVL across a loop. a loop is a closed path formed
by passing through an ordered sequence of nodes without passing through any node more than
once. If the loop doesn’t enclose any other loop, it is called a mesh. The variable in this
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technique are mesh currents which are currents associated with each mesh in assigned direction
(usually clockwise direction ) .Mesh analysis provides another general procedure for analyzing
circuits, using mesh currents as the circuit variables.
Mesh analysis is also known as loop analysis or the mesh-current method. A mesh is a
loop which does not contain any other loops within it.
In the mesh analysis of a circuit with n meshes, we take the following three steps.
1. Label N loop current for N meshes (distinct closed path) through the network.
2. If the circuit contains only independent voltage source ,write linearly independent
simultaneous equations using KVL .determine the N unknown loop current
3. If the circuit contains an independent current source a constraint equations is written for
the current that flows through it. The current source is then replaced by an open circuit
and another equation is written for the newly created loop.
4. If the circuit contains a dependent source, treat the dependent source as though it were
an independent source when writing N-loop equations and then write one additional
equation for the controlling parameter of the dependent source.
5. Solve the equation using any convenient method

In Fig. 2.6, for example, paths abefa and bcdeb are meshes, but path abcdefa is not a mesh.
The current through a mesh is known as mesh current. In mesh analysis, we are interested in
applying KVL to find the mesh currents in a given circuit.

Figure 2.6: circuit with two meshes

To illustrate the steps, consider the circuit in Fig. 2.6. The first step requires that mesh currents
i1 and i2 are assigned to meshes 1 and 2. Although a mesh current may be assigned to each mesh
in an arbitrary direction, it is conventional to assume that each mesh current flows clockwise.
As the second step, we apply KVL to each mesh. Applying KVL to mesh 1, we obtain

………………Equ (1)
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For mesh 2, applying KVL gives

……………..Equ (2)
The third step is to solve for the mesh currents. Putting Eqs. (1) and (2) in matrix form yields

EXAMPLE 2.3
For the circuit in Fig. 2.7, find the branch currents I1, I2, and I3 using mesh analysis

Solution:
We first obtain the mesh currents using KVL. For mesh 1,

------------------Equ (1)
For mesh 2,

Figure 3.7: circuit for example 2.3

--------Equ (2)

METHOD 1: Using the substitution method,

METHOD 2: use Cramer’s rule

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2.3. CIRCUIT THEOREMS
2.3.1.INTRODUCTION
A major advantage of analyzing circuits using Kirchhoff’s laws as we did in the previous
sections are that we can analyze a circuit without tampering with its original configuration. A
major disadvantage of this approach is that, for a large, complex circuit, tedious computation
is involved.
The growth in areas of application of electric circuits has led to an evolution from simple to
complex circuits. To handle the complexity, engineers over the years have developed some
theorems to simplify circuit analysis. Such theorems include Thevenin’s and Norton’s
theorems. In addition to circuit theorems, we discuss the concepts of superposition, star-delta
transformation, and maximum power transfer in this section.
2.3.2.SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
If a circuit has two or more independent sources, one way to determine the value of a specific
variable (voltage or current) is to use nodal or mesh analysis as in the previous sections.
Another way is to determine the contribution of each independent source to the variable and
then add them up. The latter approach is known as the superposition.
The idea of superposition rests on the linearity property.
A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or directly proportional) to its input.

Figure 4.8: A linear circuit with input vs and output i.

The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through) an element in
a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that element
due to each independent source acting alone.
We apply the superposition principle in three steps:

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EXAMPLE 2.4

Use the superposition theorem to find v in the circuit in Fig. 2.9.

Solution:
Since there are two sources, let v = v1 + v2 , where v1 and v2 are
the contributions due to the 6-V voltage source and the 3-A
current source, respectively.

Figure 5.9: for example 2.4

To obtain v1, we set the current source to zero, then Applying KVL to the loop

To get v2, we set the voltage source to zero. Using current division,

Hence,

And we find

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2.3.3.THEVENIN’S THEOREM
According to Thevenin’s theorem, the linear circuit
in Fig. 2.10(a) can be replaced by that in Fig.
2.10(b). (The load in Fig. 2.10 may be a single
resistor or another circuit.) The circuit to the left of
the terminals a-b in Fig. 2.10(b) is known as the
Thevenin equivalent circuit; it was developed in
1883 by M. Leon Thevenin (1857–1926), a French
telegraph engineer.

Figure 6.10: Replacing a linear two-terminal circuit by

its Thevenin equivalent: (a) original circuit,
(b) Thevenin equivalent circuit.

Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an

equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is
the open circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned off.

EXAMPLE 2.5

Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit

shown in Fig. 2.11, to the left of the terminals a-b. Then
find the current through RL =6, 16, 36 Ω.

Figure 7.11: for example 2.5

.

Solution:
We find RTh by turning off the 32V voltage source (replacing it with a short circuit) and the 2A
current source (replacing it with an open circuit). The circuit becomes what is shown in Fig.
2.12(a). Thus,

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 Figure 8.12: For Example 2.5: (a) finding RTh, (b) finding VTh.

To find VTh, consider the circuit in Fig. 2.12 (b). Applying mesh analysis to the two loops,

Solving for i1, we get i1 = 0.5 A. Thus,

The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.13.

The current through RL is

Figure 9.13: The Thevenin equivalent circuit for example 2.5

2.3.4.NORTON’S THEOREM

Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN, where IN is the short-
circuit current through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned off.
We find RN in the same way we find RTh. In fact, from what we know about source
transformation, the Thevenin and Norton resistances are equal; that is,

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 Figure 10.13: (a) Original circuit, (b) Norton equivalent circuit

To find the Norton current IN, we determine the short circuit current flowing from terminal a
to b in circuit Fig. 4.37.

Figure 11.13: Finding Norton current IN.

EXAMPLE 2.6

Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the circuit

shown.
Answer:

2.3.5.MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to provide power to a load. Therefor
Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the maximum power a linear circuit can deliver to a
load. We assume that we can adjust the load
resistance RL. If the entire circuit is replaced by its
Thevenin equivalent except for the load, as shown in
Fig. 2.14, the power delivered to the load is

Figure 12.14: The circuit used for maximum power transfer.

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 Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals the Thevenin
resistance as seen from the load (RL = RTh).
The maximum power transferred is then obtained by substituting the load resistance RL by the
Thevenin resistance (RTH).

Example 2.7
Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the circuit shown below.
Also find the maximum power.

Solution:
First we need to find the Thevenin resistance RTh and the Thevenin voltage VTh across the
terminals a-b.

To get VTh, Applying mesh analysis

Solving for i1, we get i1 =−2/3A. Applying KVL around the outer loop to get VTh across terminals
a-b, we obtain

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For maximum power transfer,

And the maximum power is

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