General Physics (Phys 1011), Lecture note Acc year 2024/2025 GC

6. Chapter Six-Linear Momentum

1. The Concept of Momentum and Impulse

Momentum (𝑃) measures how hard it is to stop something that's moving. The more momentum
something has, the more force you need to stop it. It has both size and direction (is a vector).

• e.g., a speeding car (which is heavy and fast) is harder to stop than a rolling
basketball (which is lighter and slower).

Mathematically linear momentum, 𝑃⃗ = 𝑚𝑣 where 𝑚 is mass and 𝑣 is velocity

Doubling either 𝑚 or 𝑣, doubles its 𝑃⃗ or doubling both quantities quadruples its 𝑃⃗

Hence it is a vector:
𝑝𝑥 = 𝑚𝑣𝑥 , 𝑝𝑦 = 𝑚𝑣𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑧 = 𝑚𝑣𝑦

And its magnitude 𝑃 = √𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑦 2 + 𝑝𝑧 2

1 1 𝑚 (𝑚𝑣)2 𝑃2
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = ( 𝑣(𝑚𝑣)) × = =
2 2 𝑚 2𝑚 2𝑚

𝑃2
𝐾𝐸 =
2𝑚
This relationship is valid for objects travelling at speeds much less than the speed of light.
Starting from Newton second law:

∆𝑣 ∆(𝑚𝑣) ∆𝑃⃗
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 ( )= =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
This is, in fact, how Newton originally stated his second law of motion. If the net force on an object is
zero, the object's momentum doesn't change, meaning its linear momentum is conserved when 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 ∆𝑡 = ∆𝑃⃗ = 0 ⇒ 𝑃𝑓 = 𝑃𝑖 ⇒ 𝑚𝑣𝑓 = 𝑚𝑣𝑖 momentum is conserved

This formula also shows us that changing an object’s momentum requires the continuous application of a
force over a period of time Δ𝑡 leading to the definition of impulse. If a constant force 𝐹 acts on an object,
the impulse 𝐼 delivered to the object over a time interval Δ𝑡 is given by

𝐼 = 𝐹 ∆𝑡 = ∆𝑃⃗ = 𝑚𝑣𝑓 − 𝑚𝑣𝑖

This equation holds even if forces aren't constant, as long as 𝛥𝑡 is very small. It shows that the
impulse (𝐼) of the force acting on an object equals the change in momentum (𝛥𝑃). This is true
even if the force varies, provided the time interval (𝛥𝑡) is very small.

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In real life, forces are rarely constant. To analyze variable forces, we use the average force 𝐹𝑎𝑣.
which delivers the same impulse in the time interval 𝛥𝑡 as the actual varying force. Thus, the
impulse–momentum theorem is:

𝐹𝑎𝑣. Δt = ∆𝑃⃗
Exercises

1. A baseball with mass 0.145 kg is struck by a bat. The force on the ball varies from zero when
contact is made, up to a maximum value, and then back to zero when the ball leaves the bat.
Assume the ball leaves the bat with a velocity of 36 m/s. Assume radius of the baseball, 𝑟 ≈
0.037 𝑚 (standard baseball radius)
a. Find the magnitude of the impulse due to the collision.
b. Estimate the duration of the collision and the average force acting on the ball.
c. What average speed of baseball would double the average force? (Assume the final
velocity is unchanged, ∆𝑝 is unchanged)
Solution Given 𝑚 = 0.145 𝑘𝑔 𝑣𝑓 = 36 𝑚/𝑠 𝑣𝑖 = 0 ∆𝑡 = 3 × 10−3 𝑠𝑒𝑐

a. 𝐼 = 𝛥𝑝 = 𝑚𝛥𝑣 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓 − 𝑚𝑣𝑖 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓 = 0.145𝑘𝑔 × 36𝑚/𝑠 = 5.22 kg ⋅ m/s

b. To estimate the duration of the collision (𝛥𝑡) and the average force (𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 ), we can use
the impulse-momentum theorem:
I = 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 Δt = 5.22 kg ⋅ m/s

The average speed during the collision is approximately half the maximum speed and the displacement
during the collision can be approximated by the diameter of the ball (since the ball is deformed and then
1
returns to its shape). 𝑉𝑎𝑣 = 2 𝑣𝑓 = 18 𝑚/𝑠 𝑑 = 2𝑟 = 2 × 0.037𝑚 = 0.074𝑚

𝑑 0.074𝑚
∆𝑡 = = = 4.11 × 10−3 𝑠
𝑉𝑎𝑣 18 m/s
𝐼 5.22 kg ⋅ m/s
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = 1.27 × 103 N
∆𝑡 4.11 × 10−3 𝑠
c. 𝑣𝑓 = 36 𝑚/𝑠 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔1 = 1.27 × 103 N I = 5.22 kg ⋅ m/s
⃗
∆𝑃
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 = , to keep 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 double we keep momentum is unchanged and halve the collision duration
∆𝑡
(𝛥𝑡).
(2𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 )∆𝑡2 = ∆𝑝 = 𝐼 ⇒ 2.54 × 103 N ∆𝑡2 = 5.22 kg ⋅ m/s

5.22 kg ⋅ m/s
𝛥𝑡2 = ≈ 2.05 × 10−3 s
2.54 × 103 N
Displacement during the collision (𝑑) remains the same: 𝑑 ≈ 0.074 𝑚
Therefore, new average speed (𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) can be calculated as:

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𝑑 0.074 𝑚
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = =≈ 36.10 m/s
𝛥𝑡2 2.05 × 10−3 s
2. A 0.15 kg baseball, thrown with a speed of 40 𝑚/𝑠, is hit straight back at the pitcher with a
speed of 50 𝑚/𝑠.
a. What is the magnitude of the impulse delivered by the bat to the baseball?
b. Find the magnitude of the average force exerted by the bat on the ball if the two are in
contact for 2 × 10−3 𝑠. 𝐴𝑁𝑆𝑊𝐸𝑅𝑆 (𝑎) 13.5 𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠 (𝑏) 6.75 𝑘𝑁
Solution 𝑚 = 0.15 𝑘𝑔 𝑣0 = 40 m/s 𝑣𝑓 = 50 m/s (since it is hit back towards the pitcher)

a) 𝐼 = ∆𝑃 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓 − (−𝑚𝑣𝑖 ) = 𝑚(𝑣𝑓 + 𝑣𝑖 ) = 0.15 𝑘𝑔(50 m/s + 40 m/s) = 13.5𝑘𝑔. 𝑚/𝑠

𝐼 13.5𝑘𝑔.𝑚/𝑠
b) ∆𝑡 = 2 × 10−3 𝑠 𝐹𝑎𝑣 = = = 6.75 × 103 𝑁
∆𝑡 2 ×10−3 𝑠
3. When a person is involved in a car accident, why is the likelihood of injury greater in a head-on collision
as opposed to being hit from behind? Answer using the concepts of relative velocity, momentum, and
average force.
Answer: The likelihood of injury is greater in a head-on collision than in a rear-end collision due to the
following reasons:

• Relative Velocity: In a head-on collision, both vehicles are moving toward each other,
resulting in a higher relative velocity at impact (e.g., 60 m/s for two cars at 30 m/s each). This
leads to more severe collisions.
• Momentum: Both vehicles have significant momentum in a head-on collision, resulting in
larger changes in momentum. In a rear-end collision, the momentum change is typically
smaller, which means a less intense impact.
• Average Force: The greater change in momentum in a head-on collision translates to a higher
average force exerted on the occupants. This increased force contributes to a greater risk of
injury. In contrast, the lower forces in rear-end collisions generally lead to less severe injuries.
4. In a crash test scenario, a car with a mass of 1.5 × 103 kg collides with a wall and rebounds
the initial velocity of the car is 𝑣𝑖 = −15.0𝑚/𝑠 (toward the wall), and the final velocity after
the collision is 𝑣𝑓 = 2.6𝑚/𝑠 (away from the wall). The duration of the collision is 0.150𝑠.
Tasks:
(a) Calculate the impulse delivered to the car as a result of the collision.
(b) Determine the magnitude and direction of the average force exerted on the car during the collision.
(c) Consider an alternative scenario where the car does not rebound off the wall. If the collision
duration remains at 0.15 𝑠 and the final velocity of the car is zero, find the average force exerted
on the car in this case.
Solution Given

a. 𝐼 = ∆𝑃 = 𝑃𝑓 − 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑚 (𝑣𝑓 − (𝑣𝑖 )) = 𝑚(𝑣𝑓 + 𝑣𝑖 ) = 1.5 × 103 𝑘𝑔(2.6𝑚/𝑠 +

15.0𝑚/𝑠) = 2.64 × 104 𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠
b. Magnitude and Direction of the Average Force
The average force (𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) can be found using the impulse-momentum theorem:

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𝐼 26,400
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = ≈ 176,000𝑁
∆𝑡 0.15
Direction: Since the car rebounds in the positive direction, the average force exerted on the car is also in
the positive direction.
c. Average Force when the Car Does Not Rebound
If the car does not rebound, its final velocity is zero. The change in momentum is:

Given ∆𝑡 = 0.15 s 𝑣𝑓 = 0 𝑚 = 1.5 × 103 𝑘𝑔 𝑣𝑖 = −15𝑚/𝑠

𝛥𝑝 = 𝑚 ⋅ (0 − 𝑣𝑖 ) = −𝑚. 𝑣𝑖 = −1.5 × 103 (−15) = 22,500𝑘𝑔 ⋅ 𝑚/𝑠

Using the impulse-momentum theorem again:
∆𝑃⃗ 22,500 𝑘𝑔⋅𝑚/𝑠
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = 150,000N
∆𝑡 0.15 s

2. Conservation of Momentum
In an isolated system, the total momentum remains constant over time during a collision. While
the momentum of individual objects may change, the vector sum of all momenta does not. This
principle means that total momentum is conserved.
Collisions can occur through physical contact between objects, like billiard balls or a bat and ball.
However, at a submicroscopic level, defining collisions becomes more complex. Forces arise from
the electrostatic interactions of electrons in the surface atoms, where like charges repel and
opposite charges attract. In microscopic collisions, such as between two positive charges, the
particles can interact and transfer momentum without direct contact. This distinction highlights the
difference between macroscopic and microscopic collisions.
Figure a, collision between two
objects resulting from direct
contact. (b) A collision between
two charged objects (in this
case, a proton and a helium
nucleus).

Before the collision, the velocities of the two particles are 𝑣1i and 𝑣2i ; after the collision, the
velocities are 𝑣2i and 𝑣2f . The impulse–momentum theorem applied to 𝑚1 becomes
𝐹21 ∆𝑡 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 − 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖

Likewise, for 𝑚2 , we have

𝐹12 ∆𝑡 = 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓 − 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖

Where 𝐹21 is the average force exerted by 𝑚2 on 𝑚1 during the collision and 𝐹12 is the average
force exerted by 𝑚1 on 𝑚2 during the collision, as in figure below

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During a collision, the momentum of each object changes, but the total momentum of the system
remains constant. Typically, the lighter object experiences a greater change in velocity than the
heavier one. According to Newton’s third law, the forces between the two objects are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction: 𝐹21 = −𝐹12 since these forces act over the same time
interval, we can express this relationship as:
𝐹21 ∆𝑡 = −𝐹12 ∆𝑡
This leads to the equation:
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 − 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 = −(𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓 − 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖 )

Rearranging this gives the important result of momentum conservation

𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖

This result is a special case of the law of conservation of momentum and is true of isolated
systems containing any number of interacting objects.
When no net external force acts on a system, the total momentum of the system remains constant
in time. Since momentum is a vector, we can rewrite the law of conservation of momentum for
isolated system.

Example
1. An archer is standing at rest on a frictionless ice surface, with a total mass of 60 kg,
including his bow and quiver of arrows.
(a) If he fires a 0.03 𝑘𝑔 arrow horizontally at a speed of 50 𝑚/𝑠 in the positive x-
direction, what will be his velocity across the ice after firing the arrow?

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(b) The archer then fires a second identical arrow at the same speed relative to the
ground, but at an angle of 30° above the horizontal. What is his new speed after
firing this arrow?
(c) Estimate the average normal force acting on the archer while the second arrow is
being accelerated by the bowstring, assuming a draw length of 0.8 𝑚.
(d) Would firing a heavier arrow necessarily increase the recoil velocity? Explain.

(e) When an archer fires a heavier arrow, the recoil velocity of the archer generally
increases, assuming all other factors are equal. This happens due to the following
reasons:

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1) Momentum Conservation: The momentum imparted to the arrow is greater

because it has more mass.
2) Equal and Opposite Reaction: According to the conservation of momentum, the
total momentum before and after the shot must be the same. Therefore, if the
arrow has a larger momentum (due to its greater mass), the archer must
experience a proportionally larger momentum in the opposite direction.

In this case we consider conservation of momentum and hence both man and women are
stationery, initial momentum is zero.
−𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑚,𝑓 −105 𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠
0 = 𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑚,𝑓 + (𝑚𝑤 + 𝑚𝑝 )𝑣𝑤,𝑓 ⇒ 𝑣𝑤,𝑓 =
(𝑚𝑤 +𝑚𝑝 )
=− 57.5 𝑘𝑔
= −1.83 𝑚/𝑠

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3. Collisions in One Dimension and in Two Dimensions

In any collision, the total momentum before equals the total momentum after, as long as the system
is isolated. However, kinetic energy is not always conserved in all collisions because it can be
converted to internal energy, sound, or deformation (e.g., car crashes).
A condition where both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved is known as an elastic
collision.
In contrast, an inelastic collision is one where only momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy is
not.
After the collision, if the two objects stick together, the collision is called perfectly inelastic.
Only in very special circumstances is all the initial kinetic energy lost in a perfectly inelastic
collision. Perfectly elastic collisions do occur, however, between atomic and subatomic
particles (but ideal in classical mechanics, and both momentum and kinetic energy are completely
conserved). Elastic and perfectly inelastic collisions are limiting cases; most actual collisions fall
into a range in between them.
We can summarize the types of collisions as follows:
• In an elastic collision, both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.
• In an inelastic collision, momentum is conserved but kinetic energy is not.
• In a perfectly inelastic collision, momentum is conserved, kinetic energy is not, and the
two objects stick together after the collision, so their final velocities are the same.
3.1Perfectly Inelastic Collisions

Consider two objects having masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 moving with known initial velocity components
𝑣1𝑖 and 𝑣2𝑖 along a straight line as shown figure above, If the two objects collide head-on, stick
together, and move with a common velocity component 𝑣𝑓 after the collision, then the collision
is perfectly inelastic.
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣𝑓 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣𝑓
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖
𝑣𝑓 =
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )

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Example:
1. A pickup truck with mass 1.8 × 103 𝑘𝑔 traveling eastbound at +15.0 m/s, while a compact
car with mass 9 × 102 𝑘𝑔 is traveling westbound at -15.0 m/s. The vehicles collide head-
on, becoming entangled.

(a) Find the speed of the entangled vehicles after the collision.
(b) Find the change in the velocity of each vehicle.
(c) Find the change in the kinetic energy of the system consisting of both vehicles.
(d) If the mass of both vehicles were doubled, how would the final velocity be affected?
The change in kinetic energy?
Solution 𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑐 = 1.8 × 103 𝑘𝑔 𝑚comp = 9 × 102 𝑘𝑔 𝑣1𝑖 = 15 m/s 𝑣2𝑖 = −15 m/s

𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣𝑓

𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 +𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖 (1.8×103 𝑘𝑔×15 m/s)+(9×102 𝑘𝑔×−15.0 m/s)
(a) 𝑣𝑓 = =
(𝑚1 +𝑚2 ) (1.8×103 𝑘𝑔 +9×102 𝑘𝑔)
13,500
𝑣𝑓 = = 5 𝑚/𝑠
2,700
(b) ∆𝑣pickup = 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣1𝑖 = 5 𝑚/𝑠 − 15 𝑚/𝑠 = −10 𝑚/𝑠
∆𝑣compact car = 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣2𝑖 = 5 𝑚/𝑠 − (−15 𝑚/𝑠) = 20 𝑚/𝑠
(c) ∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓 − 𝐾𝐸𝑖
1 1 1 1
𝐾𝐸𝑖 = 𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑣1𝑖 2 + 𝑚comp 𝑣2𝑖 2 = (1.8 × 103 )(15)2 + (9 × 102 )(−15)2 𝑘𝑔(𝑚/𝑠)2
2 2 2 2
= 202,500𝐽 + 101,250𝐽 = 303,750𝐽
1 1 3 2
𝐾𝐸𝑓 = (𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑐 + 𝑚comp )𝑣𝑓 2 = (1.8 × 10 𝑘𝑔 + 9 × 10 𝑘𝑔) (5 𝑚/𝑠)2
2 2
1
= (2,700 )25 𝑘𝑔(𝑚/𝑠)2 = 33,750𝐽
2
∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓 − 𝐾𝐸𝑖 = 33,750𝐽 − 303,750𝐽 = −270,000𝐽

During the collision, the system lost almost 90% of its kinetic energy.
(d) The new initial momentum is (2𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑐 = 3.6 × 103 𝑘𝑔 2𝑚comp = 18 × 102 𝑘𝑔 )
∆𝐾𝐸,𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓 − 𝐾𝐸𝑖

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1 1 1
= ( (3.6 × 103 + 18 × 102 )𝑣𝑓 2 ) − ( (3.6 × 103 × 𝑣1𝑖 2 )𝑘𝑔 + (18 × 102 × 𝑣2𝑖 2 )𝑘𝑔)
2 2 2
1 1
= 2 ( 5,400𝑘𝑔) 𝑣𝑓 2 − 2 ((3.6 × 103 × (15)2 ) + (18 × 102 × (−15)2 )𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠)

2,700𝑘𝑔𝑣𝑓 2 = 405, 000 𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠 + 202,500 𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠 = 607,500𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠

607,500𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠
𝑣𝑓 2 = = 225𝑚/𝑠
2700𝑘𝑔

𝑣𝑓 = √225 = 15𝑚/𝑠

1 1
And 𝐾𝐸𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 2 ( 5,400𝑘𝑔) 𝑣𝑓 2 = 2 ( 5,400𝑘𝑔) × 225𝑚/𝑠 = 607,500𝐽

𝐾𝐸𝑖 = 607,500𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠

∆𝐾𝐸,𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓 − 𝐾𝐸𝑖 = 607,500𝐽 − 607,500𝐽 = 0 kinetic energy conserved.

2. Suppose the same two vehicles are both travelling eastward, the compact car leading the
pickup truck. The driver of the compact car slams on the brakes suddenly, slowing the
vehicle to 6 m/s. If the pickup truck travelling at 18 m/s crashes into the compact car, find
(a) the speed of the system right after the collision, assuming the two vehicles become
entangled,
(b) the change in velocity for both vehicles, and
(c) the change in kinetic energy of the system, from the instant before impact (when the
compact car is travelling at 6 m/s) to the instant right after the collision.
ANSWERS (a)14m/s (b) pickup truck: Δ𝒗𝟏= −4𝑚/𝑠 compact car: 𝛥𝑣2 = 8𝑚/𝑠 (c) −4.32 × 104 𝐽
Solution: Given 𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑐 = 1.8 × 103 𝑘𝑔 𝑚comp = 9 × 102 𝑘𝑔 𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑚 = 6 𝑚/𝑠 𝑣𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑘 = 18 𝑚/𝑠

(a) 𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑘 + 𝑚comp 𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑚 = (𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑐 + 𝑚comp )𝑣𝑓

𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑘 + 𝑚comp 𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑚 (1.8 × 103 𝑘𝑔 ∗ 18 𝑚/𝑠) + (9 × 102 𝑘𝑔 ∗ 6 𝑚/𝑠)

𝑣𝑓 = =
(𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑐 + 𝑚comp ) (9 × 102 𝑘𝑔 + 1.8 × 103 𝑘𝑔)
37800𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠
𝑣𝑓 = = 14𝑚/𝑠
2700𝑘𝑔
(b) ∆𝑣𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑘 = 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑘 = 14𝑚/𝑠 − 18𝑚/𝑠 = −4𝑚/𝑠
∆𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑚 = 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑚 = 14𝑚/𝑠 − 6𝑚/𝑠 = 8𝑚/𝑠
(c) ∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓 − 𝐾𝐸𝑖

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1 1
𝐾𝐸𝑖 = 𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑘 2 + 𝑚comp 𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑚 2
2 2
1
= (18 × 102 𝑘𝑔 ∗ (18 𝑚/𝑠)2 + 9 × 102 𝑘𝑔 ∗ (6 𝑚/𝑠)2 )
2
=307,800J
1 1
𝐾𝐸𝑓 = (𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑐 + 𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 )𝑣𝑓 2 = (2,700𝑘𝑔)(14𝑚/𝑠)2 = 264,600𝐽
2 2
∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓 − 𝐾𝐸𝑖 = 264,600𝐽 − 307,800J = −43,200𝐽

Home work
1. A bullet with mass 5 g is fired horizontally into a 2-kg block attached to a horizontal
spring. The spring has a constant 6 ×102 N/m and reaches a maximum compression of 6cm.
(a) Find the initial speed of the bullet–block system.
(b) Find the speed of the bullet.
ANSWERS (a) 1.04 m/s (b) 417 m/s

3.2Elastic Collisions

In this situation, both the momentum and the kinetic energy of the system of two objects are
conserved. We can write these conditions as:
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓

and
1 1 1 1
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 2 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖 2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 2 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓 2
2 2 2 2
We can also derive as
1 1 1 1
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 2 − 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 2 = 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓 2 − 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖 2
2 2 2 2
𝑚1 (𝑣1𝑖 2 − 𝑣1𝑓 2 ) = 𝑚2 (𝑣2𝑓 2 − 𝑣2𝑖 2 )

𝑚1 (𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑣1𝑓 )(𝑣1𝑖 − 𝑣1𝑓 ) = 𝑚2 (𝑣2𝑓 + 𝑣2𝑖 )(𝑣2𝑓 − 𝑣2𝑖 )…………………………… (1)

From conservation of momentum

𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓 ⇒ 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 − 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 = 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓 − 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖

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𝑚1 (𝑣1𝑖 − 𝑣1𝑓 ) = 𝑚2 (𝑣2𝑓 − 𝑣2𝑖 )………………………………….. (2)

Divide equation 1 by 2 gives

𝑣1𝑖 + 𝑣1𝑓 = 𝑣2𝑓 + 𝑣2𝑖 ⇒ 𝑣2𝑖 − 𝑣1𝑖 = −(𝑣2𝑓 − 𝑣1𝑓 ) …………………………….. (3)

This equation with conservation of momentum equation is used to solve problems dealing with
perfectly elastic head-on collisions.
Equation 3, tells us that the relative velocity of the two objects before the collision is equals the
negative of the relative velocity of the two objects after the collision.
Example
1. Two billiard balls of identical mass move toward each other with the positive x - axis
to the right. Assume that the collision between them is perfectly elastic. If the initial
velocities of the balls are 130 cm/s and 220 cm/s, what are the velocities of the balls
after the collision? Assume friction and rotation are unimportant.
Solution Given 𝑣1𝑖 = 130 cm/s = 1.3 m/s and 𝑣2𝑖 = −220 cm/s = −2.2 m/s
Momentum is conserved:
(𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 )𝑖 = ( 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 )𝑓 ⇒ 𝑣1,𝑖 + 𝑣2,𝑖 = 𝑣1,𝑓 + 𝑣2,𝑓 ⇒

1.3𝑚/𝑠 − 2.2 𝑚/𝑠 = 𝑣1,𝑓 + 𝑣2,𝑓 ⇒ −0.9 𝑚/𝑠 = 𝑣1,𝑓 + 𝑣2,𝑓 ------------------------(1)

Relative velocity equation: 𝑣2𝑖 − 𝑣1𝑖 = −(𝑣2𝑓 − 𝑣1𝑓 ) ⇒ −2.2 m/s − 1.3 m/s = 𝑣1𝑓 − 𝑣2𝑓

𝑣1𝑓 − 𝑣2𝑓 = −3.5 m/s ⇒ 𝑣1𝑓 = 𝑣2𝑓 − 3.5 m/s insert this in to (1)

−0.9 𝑚/𝑠 = 𝑣1,𝑓 + 𝑣2,𝑓 = (𝑣2𝑓 − 3.5 m/s) + 𝑣2,𝑓 =

2.6𝑚/𝑠
2.6 𝑚/𝑠 = 2𝑣2,𝑓 ⇒ 𝑣2,𝑓 = = 𝟏. 𝟑𝒎/𝒔 and
2

𝑣1𝑓 = −1.3𝑚/𝑠 − 0.9 m/s = −𝟐. 𝟐𝐦/𝐬

Homework
1. In the example above, is it possible to adjust the initial velocities of the balls so that both are at
rest after the collision? Explain.
2. Find the final velocities of the two balls if the ball with initial velocity 𝑣2𝑖=−20cm/s has a mass
equal to one half that of the ball with initial velocity 𝑣1𝑖=+30 cm/s.
ANSWER 𝑣1𝑓=−3.33cm/s; 𝑣2𝑓=+46.7cm/s

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3.3Two-Dimensional (Glancing) Collisions

In the context of a two-dimensional collision between two objects, we derive two equations
representing the conservation of momentum, one for each spatial dimension:
(𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 )𝑥𝑖 = ( 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 )𝑥𝑓

(𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 )𝑦𝑖 = ( 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 )𝑦𝑓

Consider an object of mass 𝑚1 collides with an object of mass 𝑚2 that is initially at rest (as seen
in the figure below).
After the collision, object 1 moves at an angle 𝜃 with respect to the horizontal, and object 2
moves at an angle 𝜑 with respect to the horizontal. This is called a glancing collision.

Applying the law of conservation of momentum in component form, and noting that the initial y-
component of momentum is zero, we have x - component:
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖𝑥 + 0 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 ……………………x component

0 + 0 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑…………………… y component

For elastic collision (conservation of energy applies) as:

1 1 1
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖 2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 2 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓 2
2 2 2
For inelastic collisions, the kinetic energy is not conserved, which means this energy equation
does not apply. Instead, only the conservation of momentum should be considered in such cases.
Example
1. A car with mass 1.5 × 103 kg travelling east at a speed of 25 m/s collides at an intersection with
a 2.5 × 103 kg pickup truck travelling north at a speed of 20 m/s, as shown in Figure below. Find
the magnitude and direction of the velocity of the wreckage immediately after the collision,
assuming that the vehicles undergo a perfectly inelastic collision (that is, they stick together) and
assuming that friction between the vehicles and the road can be neglected.

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Solution
𝑚1 = 1.5 × 103 kg 𝑚2 = 2.5 × 103 kg 𝑣1𝑖𝑥 = 25 m/s 𝑣2𝑖𝑦 = 20 m/s
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖𝑥 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃……………………………….. x component
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖𝑥 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

(1.5 × 103 kg ∗ 25 m/s ) = (4 × 103 kg)𝑣𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

37.5 × 103 𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠 = (4 × 103 kg)𝑣𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
37.5 × 103 𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠
𝑣𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = = 9.4 𝑚/𝑠
4 × 103 kg
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖𝑦 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖𝑦 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃………………………………… y component
𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖𝑦 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

(2.5 × 103 kg ∗ 20 m/s) = (4 × 103 kg)𝑣𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

50 × 103 kg m/s
𝑣𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = = 12.5 m/s
4 × 103 kg
𝑣𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 12.5 m/s 12.5
= = tan 𝜃 ⇒ 𝜃 = tan−1 ( 9.4 ) = 53,1°
𝑣𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 9.4 𝑚/𝑠

9.4 𝑚/𝑠 9.4 𝑚/𝑠

𝑣𝑓 = = = 15.6m/s
𝑐𝑜𝑠(53,1) 0.6
2. If the car and truck had identical mass and speed, what would the resultant angle have
been?
Solution
𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚 and 𝑣1𝑖𝑥 = 𝑣2𝑖𝑦 = 𝑣𝑖 then
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖𝑥 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ⇒ 𝑚𝑣𝑖 = 2𝑚𝑣𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ⇒ 𝑣𝑖 = 2𝑣𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ……………….1
And
𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖𝑦 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ⇒ 𝑚𝑣𝑖 = 2𝑚𝑣𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ⇒ 𝑣𝑖 = 2𝑣𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 …………………2
Divide equation 2 by equation 1:

𝑣𝑖 2𝑣𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= = tan 𝜃 = 1
𝑣𝑖 2𝑣𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝜃 = tan−1(1) = 45°

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3. A 3 kg object initially moving in the positive x - direction with a velocity of +5 m/s

collides with and sticks to a 2 kg object initially moving in the negative y - direction with
a velocity of –3 m/s. Find the final components of velocity of the composite object.
Answer 𝑣𝑓𝑥 = 3 𝑚/𝑠; 𝑣𝑓𝑦 = −1.2 𝑚/𝑠
Solution
𝑚1 = 3 kg 𝑣1𝑖𝑥 = 5 m/s 𝑚2 = 2 kg 𝑣2𝑖𝑦 = −3 m/s
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑖𝑥 = (𝑚 1 + 𝑚2 𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ……………………………x component
)𝑣
m
3 kg ∗ 5 = 5kg 𝑣𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ⇒ 𝑣𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 3𝑚/𝑠
s
𝒗𝒇𝒙 = 𝒗𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝟑𝒎/𝒔

𝑚2 𝑣2𝑖𝑦 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃……………………………. y component

2 kg ∗ −3 m/s = 5kg 𝑣𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
−6 kg m/s
𝒗𝒇𝒚 = 𝒗𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = = −𝟏. 𝟐𝐦/𝐬
5kg

4. The Concept of Center of Mass

The center of mass of a system is essentially the weighted average position of all the mass in the
system.

Behavior Under Force:

• Force Above the Center of Mass
(Fig. 7.12a): the system will rotate
clockwise around the center of mass.
• Force Below the Center of Mass
(Fig. 7.12b): Conversely, the system
will rotate counterclockwise.
• Force at the Center of Mass (Fig.
7.12c): the entire system will move
in the direction of the force without
any rotation.
This is because the center of mass is the point at which the mass of the system is effectively
concentrated.
𝒎 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒎 𝟐 𝒙 𝟐 + 𝒎 𝟑 𝒙 𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝒎 𝒏 𝒙 𝒏 ∑𝒊 𝒎 𝒊 𝒙 𝒊 𝟏
𝒙𝒄𝒎 = = = ∑ 𝒎𝒊 𝒙𝒊
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 + 𝒎𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝒎 𝒏 ∑𝒊 𝒎 𝒊 𝑴
𝒊

Where M is total mass and equal to ∑𝒊 𝒎𝒊 and 𝒙𝒊 is the x coordinate of the ith particle. Similarly

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The y and z coordinates of the center of mass are similarly defined by the equations:
𝟏 𝟏
𝒚𝒄𝒎 = 𝑴 ∑𝒊 𝒎𝒊 𝒚𝒊 and 𝒁𝒄𝒎 = 𝑴 ∑𝒊 𝒎𝒊 𝒁𝒊

Also, in three dimensions, position vector 𝑟𝐶𝑀 .

𝟏 𝟏
̂=
𝑟𝐶𝑀 = 𝒙𝒄𝒎 𝒊̂ + 𝒚𝒄𝒎 𝒋̂ + 𝒁𝒄𝒎 𝒌 ̂ ) = ∑ 𝒎𝒊 𝒓
(∑ 𝒎𝒊 𝒙𝒊 𝒊̂ + ∑ 𝒎𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝒋̂ + ∑ 𝒎𝒊 𝒁𝒊 𝒌 ⃗𝒊
𝑴 𝑴
𝒊 𝒊 𝒊 𝒊

⃗ 𝒊 is the position vector of the ith particle, defined by 𝒓

Where 𝒓 ̂.
⃗ 𝒊 = 𝒙𝒊 𝒊̂ + 𝒚𝒊 𝒋̂ + 𝒁𝒊 𝒌
Example
3. Three objects are located in a coordinate system as shown in Figure a. Find the center of
mass 𝑚1 = 5𝑘𝑔 𝑥1 = −0.5𝑚 𝑚2 = 2𝑘𝑔 𝑥2 = 0 𝑚3 = 4𝑘𝑔 𝑥3 = 1𝑚.
4. How does the answer change if the object on the left is displaced upward by 1 m and the
object on the right is displaced downward by 0.5 m (Fig. b)? Treat the objects as point
particles

Solution 𝑚1 = 5𝑘𝑔 𝑥1 = −0.5𝑚 𝑚2 = 2𝑘𝑔 𝑥2 = 0 𝑚3 = 4𝑘𝑔 𝑥3 = 1𝑚

𝑚1 𝑥1 +𝑚2 𝑥2 +𝑚3 𝑥3 (5𝑘𝑔×−0.5𝑚)+(2𝑘𝑔×0)+(4𝑘𝑔×1𝑚) 1.5𝑘𝑔 𝑚
1. 𝑥𝑐𝑚 = = =
𝑚1 +𝑚2 +𝑚3 5𝑘𝑔+2𝑘𝑔+4𝑘𝑔 11𝑘𝑔
= 0.136𝑚
2. 𝑥𝑐𝑚 = 0.136𝑚 doesn’t change
𝑚1 𝑦1 + 𝑚2 𝑦2 + 𝑚3 𝑦3 (5𝑘𝑔 ∗ 1 𝑚) + (2𝑘𝑔 ∗ 0) + (4𝑘𝑔 ∗ −0.5𝑚)
𝑦𝑐𝑚 = =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 11𝑘𝑔

3𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠
𝑦𝑐𝑚 = = 0.273 𝑚
11𝑘𝑔
1. If 1 kg is added to the masses on the left and right in Figure a, does the center of mass (a) move
to the left, (b) move to the right, or (c) remain in the same position?

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𝑚1 + 1 = 6𝑘𝑔 𝑚2 = 2𝑘𝑔 𝑚3 + 1 = 5𝑘𝑔

(6𝑘𝑔 × −0.5𝑚) + (2𝑘𝑔 × 0) + (5𝑘𝑔 × 1𝑚) 2 𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝑥𝑐𝑚 = = = 0.154m
6𝑘𝑔 + 2𝑘𝑔 + 5𝑘𝑔 13𝑘𝑔
(b) move to the right
2. If a fourth particle of mass 2 kg is placed at (0, 0.25 m) in Figure a, find the x- and y - coordinates
of the center of mass for this system of four particles.
Answer 𝑥𝑐𝑚 = 0.115 𝑚; 𝑦𝑐𝑚 = 0.0385 𝑚
(5𝑘𝑔 × −0.5𝑚) + (2𝑘𝑔 × 0) + (2𝑘𝑔 × 0) + (4𝑘𝑔 × 1𝑚) 1.5𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝑥𝑐𝑚 = = = 0.115𝑚
5𝑘𝑔 + 2𝑘𝑔 + 4𝑘𝑔 + 2𝑘𝑔 13𝑘𝑔
(5𝑘𝑔 × 0) + (2𝑘𝑔 × 0) + (2𝑘𝑔 × 0.25) + (4𝑘𝑔 × 0) 0.5𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝑦𝑐𝑚 = = = 0.0385𝑚
5𝑘𝑔 + 2𝑘𝑔 + 4𝑘𝑔 + 2𝑘𝑔 13𝑘𝑔

3. Bob and Sherry are lying on the ice, a fishing hole of radius 1𝑚 cut in the ice halfway between
them. A rope of length 10𝑚 lies between them, and they both grip it and begin pulling, as in Figure
a below. Bob has mass of 𝑚𝐵 = 85 𝑘𝑔 and Sherry has mass of 𝑚𝑠 = 48 𝑘𝑔, so Sherry reaches
the hole, first. Where is Bob at that time? Assume the hole is centered on the origin and that Bob
and Sherry start at 𝑥𝐵 = 5 𝑚 and 𝑥𝑆 = – 5 𝑚, respectively. Neglect forces of friction.

Solution 𝑚𝑠 = 48 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝐵 = 85𝑘𝑔 𝑥𝐵 = 5𝑚 𝑥𝑆 = – 5𝑚 𝑟 = 1𝑚 𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 10𝑚

(𝑚𝑠 𝑥𝑆 ) + (𝑚𝐵 𝑥𝐵 ) (48 𝑘𝑔 × −5 𝑚) + (85𝑘𝑔 × 5𝑚)
𝑥𝑐𝑚 = = = 1.39 𝑚
𝑚𝑠 + 𝑚𝐵 48 𝑘𝑔 + 85 𝑘𝑔

To Find Bob’s position where Sherry reaches the hole (𝑥𝑆 = – 1𝑚) we use center of mass equation
at this position
(𝑚𝑠 𝑥𝑆 ) + (𝑚𝐵 𝑥𝐵 )
𝑥𝑐𝑚 =
𝑚𝑠 + 𝑚𝐵
(48 𝑘𝑔 × −1 𝑚) + (85𝑘𝑔)𝑥𝐵
1.39 𝑚 = ⇒ 184.87 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 + 48𝑘𝑔𝑚 = 85𝑘𝑔 𝑥𝐵
133 𝑘𝑔

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General Physics (Phys 1011), Lecture note Acc year 2024/2025 GC

232.87𝑘𝑔𝑚
𝑥𝐵 = = 2.74𝑚
85𝑘𝑔
Therefore, when Sherry reaches the hole; Bob’s position is at (2.74𝑚), or 1.74 away from the whole.
4. How do the speeds 𝑣𝑆 of Sherry and 𝑣𝐵 of Bob compare during the motion?
At time t, Sherry moves a distance of 𝑥𝑆 = 4𝑚 and Bob’s position 𝑥𝐵 = 2.26𝑚
𝑥𝑆 𝑥𝑆 𝑥𝐵 𝑥𝐵
𝑣𝑆 = ⇒ 𝑡= 𝑣𝐵 = ⇒ 𝑡=
𝑡 𝑣𝑆 𝑡 𝑣𝐵
Therefore
𝑥𝑆 𝑥𝐵
= ⇒ 𝑥𝑆 𝑣𝐵 = 𝑥𝐵 𝑣𝑆 ⇒ 4 𝑣𝐵 = 2.26 𝑣𝑆
𝑣𝑆 𝑣𝐵
2.26 4
𝑣𝐵 = × 𝑣𝑆 = 0.57𝑣𝑆 or 𝑣𝑆 = (2.26) 𝑣𝐵 = 1.8𝑣𝐵
4

This means that Sherry's speed 𝑣𝑆 is approximately 1.8 times Bob's speed 𝑣𝐵 .
Home work
5. A man of mass M 575 kg is standing in a canoe of mass 40 kg that is 5 m long, as in Figure b.
The far end of the canoe is next to a dock. From a position 0.5 m from his end of the canoe, he
walks to the same position at the other end of the canoe.
(a) Find the center of mass of the canoe–man system, taking the end of the dock as the origin.
(b) Neglecting drag forces, how far is he from the dock?
(Hint: the final location of the canoe’s center of mass will be 2 m farther from the dock
than the man’s final position, which is unknown.)
ANSWERS (a) 3.80 m (b) 3.10 m

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