Computer

Logical
Organization
By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 1
 Introduction
❖In the modern world of electronics, the term
Digital is generally associated with a computer
because the term Digital is derived from the way
computers perform operation, by counting digits.
❖Now-a-days, digital electronics is used in many
other applications such as:
❖Industrial process control.
❖Military systems.
❖Televisions.
❖Communication systems.
❖Navigation e.t.c
By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 2
 Introduction
❖Computers communicate through use of signals.
❖Signal is a physical quantity, which contains some
information. It is a function of one or more than
one independent variables.
❖Signals are of two types.
1. Analog Signal - Signal having continuous values.
❖It can have infinite number of different values.
❖In real world scenario, most of the things
observed in nature are analog. Examples of the
analog signals are following.
❖Temperature
By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 3
 Introduction
❖Temperature
❖Pressure
❖Distance
❖Sound
❖Voltage
❖Current
❖Power
❖The circuits that process the analog signals are
called as analog circuits or system.

By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 4

 Introduction
2. Digital Signal - The signal which has only a
finite number of distinct values.
❖Digital signals are not continuous signals.
❖In the digital electronic calculator, the input is
given with the help of switches. This input is
converted into electrical signal which have two
discrete values or levels.
❖The circuits that process the
digital signals are called
digital systems or digital
circuits.
By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 5
Comparison of Analog and
Digital Signal
1. Analog signal has infinite values while digital
signal has a finite number of values.
2. Analog signal has a continuous nature while
digital signal has a discrete nature.
3. Analog signal is generated by transducers and
signal generators while digital signal is generated
by A to D converter.
4. Example of analog signal − sine wave, triangular
waves while example of digital signal − binary
signal. By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 6
 Digital Number System
❖A digital system understands positional number
system only where there are a few symbols called
digits and these symbols represent different values
depending on the position they occupy in the
number.
❖A value of each digit in a number can be determined
using:
❖The digit.
❖The position of the digit in the number.
❖The base of the number system (where base is
defined as the total number of digits available in
the number system).
By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 7
 Digital Number System
❖There are several number systems in use today:
1. Decimal Number System
❖The number system that we use in our day-to-day
life. Decimal number system has base 10 as it uses
10 digits from 0 to 9.
❖In decimal number system, the successive positions
to the left of the decimal point represents units,
tens, hundreds, thousands and so on.
❖Each position represents a specific power of the
base (10).

By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 8

 Digital Number System
❖For example, the decimal number 3246 consists of
the digit 6 in the units position, 4 in the tens
position, 2 in the hundreds position, and 3 in the
thousands position, and its value can be written as:
(3×1000) + (2×100) + (4×10) + (6×l)
(3×103) + (2×102) + (4×101) + (6×l00)
3000 + 200 + 40 + 6
3246

By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 9

 Digital Number System
2. Binary Number System
❖Uses two digits, 0 and 1.
❖Has a base 2. Each position in a binary number
represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example: 20
❖Last position in a binary number represents an x
power of the base (2). Example: 2x where x
represents the last position - 1.
❖Example: Binary Number: 101012. Calculating
Decimal Equivalent.
101012 -((1 × 24) + (0 × 23) + (1 × 22) + (0 × 21) + (1 ×
20))10
By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 10
 Digital Number System
101012 - (16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10
101012 - 2110
3. Octal Number System
❖Base 8 number system that uses 8 digits:
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7.
❖Each position in an octal number represents a 0
power of the base (8). Example: 80
❖Last position in an octal number represents an x
power of the base (8). Example: 8x where x
represents the last position - 1.

By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 11

 Digital Number System
❖Example Octal Number − 125708. Calculating
Decimal Equivalent:
125708 – ((1 × 84) + (2 × 83) + (5 × 82) + (7 × 81) + (0 ×
80))10
125708 - (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10
125708 - 549610
4. Hexa Decimal Number System
❖Base 16 number system that uses 10 digits and 6
letters, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F. Letters
represents numbers starting from 10. A = 10, B = 11,
C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15.
By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 12
 Digital Number System
❖Each position in a hexadecimal number represents
a 0 power of the base (16). Example 160.
❖Last position in a hexadecimal number represents
an x power of the base (16). Example 16x where x
represents the last position - 1.
❖Example: Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16 to
decimal equivalent.
19FDE16 - ((1 × 164) + (9 × 163) + (F × 162) + (D × 161) +
(E × 160))10
19FDE16 - ((1 × 164) + (9 × 163) + (15 × 162) + (13 × 161)
+ (14 × 160))10
By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 13
 Digital Number System
19FDE16 - (65536 + 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10
19FDE16 - 10646210
❖There are many methods or techniques which can
be used to convert numbers from one base to
another.
Decimal to Other Base System
❖Divide the decimal number to be converted by the
value of the new base.
❖Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost
digit (least significant digit) of new base number.

By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 14

 Digital Number System
❖Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the
new base.
❖Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit
(to the left) of the new base number.
❖Example: Decimal Number 29 to Binary
Operation Result Remainder
29 / 2 14 1
14 / 2 7 0
7/2 3 1
3/2 1 1
By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 15
 Digital Number System
Operation Result Remainder
1/2 0 1

❖The remainders are the arranged in the reverse

order so that the first remainder becomes the Least
Significant Digit (LSD) and the last remainder
becomes the Most Significant Digit (MSD).
❖Decimal Number − 29 = Binary Number − 11101.

By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 16

 Memory Devices
❖A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to
store data and instruction.
❖Computer memory is the storage space in
computer where data is to be processed and
instructions required for processing are stored.
❖The memory is divided into large number of small
parts. Each part is called a cell. Each location or cell
has a unique address which varies from zero to
memory size minus one.
❖For example, if computer has 64k words, then this
memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory
location. By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 17
 Memory Devices
❖Memory is primarily of two types:
❖Internal Memory − cache memory and
primary/main memory.
❖External Memory − magnetic disk / optical disk
etc.

By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 18

Memory Devices

By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 19

 Memory Devices
❖Characteristics of Memory Hierarchy from top to
bottom are:
1. Capacity in terms of storage increases.
2. Cost per bit of storage decreases.
3. Frequency of access of the memory by the CPU
decreases.
4. Access time by the CPU increases.

By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 20

 RAM
❖A RAM constitutes the internal memory of the
CPU for storing data, program and program result.
It is read/write memory.
❖It is called random access memory (RAM).
❖Since access time in RAM is independent of the
address to the word that is, each storage location
inside the memory is as easy to reach as other
location & takes the same amount of time.
❖We can reach into the memory at random &
extremely fast but can also be quite expensive.

By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 21

 RAM
❖RAM is volatile, i.e., data stored in it is lost when
we switch off the computer or if there is a power
failure.
❖RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and
in the amount of data it can hold.
❖RAM is of two types:
❖Static RAM (SRAM)
❖Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 22

 Static RAM (SRAM)
❖The word static indicates that the memory retains its
contents as long as power remains applied.
❖ However, data is lost when the power gets down due
to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-
transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not
require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not
have to be refreshed on a regular basis.
❖Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses
more chips than DRAM for the same amount of
storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs
higher.
❖Static RAM is used as cache memory needs to be very
By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 23
fast and small.
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
❖DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually
refreshed for it to maintain the data.
❖This is done by placing the memory on a refresh
circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times
per second.
❖DRAM is used for most system memory because it
is cheap and small.
❖All DRAMs are made up of memory cells. These
cells are composed of one capacitor and one
transistor.

By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 24

 ROM
❖ROM stands for Read Only Memory.
❖The memory from which we can only read but cannot
write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile.
❖The information is stored permanently in such
memories during manufacture.
❖A ROM, stores such instruction as are required to
start computer when electricity is first turned on, this
operation is referred to as bootstrap.
❖ROM chip are not only used in the computer but also
in other electronic items like washing machine and
microwave oven.
By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 25
 ROM
❖There various types of ROM −
1. MROM (Masked ROM): The very first ROMs were
hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed
set of data or instructions. These kind of ROMs are
known as masked ROMs. It is inexpensive ROM.
2. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory):
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified
only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and
enters the desired contents using a PROM
programmer. Inside the PROM chip there are small
fuses which are burnt open during programming. It
can be programmed only once and is not erasable.
By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 26
 ROM
3. EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read
Only Memory): The EPROM can be erased by
exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of
upto 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser
achieves this function. During programming an
electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate
region. The charge is retained for more than ten
years because the charge has no leakage path. For
erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed
through a quartz crystal window (lid). This
exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge.
During normal use the quartz lid is sealed with a
sticker. By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 27
 ROM
4. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and
Programmable Read Only Memory): The
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It
can be erased and reprogrammed about ten
thousand times. Both erasing and programming
take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM,
any location can be selectively erased and
programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a
time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the
process of re-programming is flexible but slow.

By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 28

 Serial Access Memory
❖Sequential access means the system must search
the storage device from the beginning of the
memory address until it finds the required piece of
data.
❖Memory device which supports such access is
called a Sequential Access Memory or Serial Access
Memory. Magnetic tape is an example of serial
access memory.

By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 29

 Direct Access Memory
❖Direct access memory or Random Access Memory,
refers to conditions in which a system can go
directly to the information that the user wants.
❖ Memory device which supports such access is
called a Direct Access Memory. Magnetic disks,
optical disks are examples of direct access memory.

By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 30

 Cache Memory
❖Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor
memory which can speed up CPU.
❖It acts as a buffer between the CPU and main
memory.
❖It is used to hold those parts of data and program
which are most frequently used by CPU.
❖The parts of data and programs, are transferred
from disk to cache memory by operating system,
from where CPU can access them.

By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 31

 Cache Memory
❖Advantages
❖Cache memory is faster than main memory.
❖It consumes less access time as compared to
main memory.
❖It stores the program that can be executed
within a short period of time.
❖It stores data for temporary use.
❖Disadvantages
❖Cache memory has limited capacity.
❖It is very expensive.
By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 32
 Cache Memory
❖Virtual memory is a technique that allows the
execution of processes which are not completely
available in memory.
❖The main visible advantage of this scheme is that
programs can be larger than physical memory.
❖Virtual memory is the separation of user logical
memory from physical memory.
❖This separation allows an extremely large virtual
memory to be provided for programmers when only
a smaller physical memory is available.

By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 33

 Cache Memory
❖Following are the situations, when entire program
is not required to be loaded fully in main memory.
1. User written error handling routines are used only
when an error occurred in the data or
computation.
2. Certain options and features of a program may be
used rarely.
3. Less number of I/O would be needed to load or
swap each user program into memory.
4. The ability to execute a program that is only
partially in memory would counter many benefits.
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 Cache Memory
5. Many tables are assigned a fixed amount of
address space even though only a small amount of
the table is actually used.
6. A program would no longer be constrained by the
amount of physical memory that is available.
7. Each user program could take less physical
memory, more programs could be run the same
time, with a corresponding increase in CPU
utilization and throughput.

By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 35

 Auxiliary Memory
❖Auxiliary memory is much larger in size than main
memory but is slower.
❖It normally stores system programs, instruction and
data files. It is also known as secondary memory.
❖It can also be used as an overflow/virtual memory in
case the main memory capacity has been exceeded.
❖Secondary memories cannot be accessed directly by a
processor. First the data/information of auxiliary
memory is transferred to the main memory and then
that information can be accessed by the CPU.

By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 36

 Auxiliary Memory
❖Characteristics of Auxiliary Memory are:
1. Non-volatile memory − Data is not lost when
power is cut off.
2. Reusable − The data stays in the secondary
storage on permanent basis until it is not
overwritten or deleted by the user.
3. Reliable − Data in secondary storage is safe
because of high physical stability of secondary
storage device.
4. Capacity − Secondary storage can store large
volumes of data in sets of multiple disks.
By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 37
 Auxiliary Memory
5. Convenience − With the help of a computer
software, authorized people can locate and access
the data quickly.
6. Cost − It is much lesser expensive to store data on
a tape or disk than primary memory.

By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 38

 Addressing Modes
❖Addressing mode provides different ways for
accessing an address to given data to a processor.
❖Operated data is stored in the memory location,
each instruction required certain data on which it
must operate.
❖There are various techniques to specify address of
data. They are called Addressing Modes.
1. Immediate addressing mode − In the
immediate addressing mode, direct data is given
in the operand which move the data in
accumulator. It is very fast.
By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 39
 Addressing Modes
2. Direct addressing mode − In the direct
addressing mode, address of the operand is given
in the instruction and data is available in the
memory location which is provided in
instruction. We will move this data in desired
location.
3. Indirect addressing mode − In the indirect
addressing mode, the instruction specifies a
register which contain the address of the operand.
Both internal RAM and external RAM can be
accessed via indirect addressing mode.
By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 40
 Addressing Modes
4. Relative addressing mode − In the relative
address mode, the effective address is determined
by the index mode by using the program counter
in stead of general-purpose processor register.
This mode is called relative address mode.
5. Index addressing mode − In the index address
mode, the effective address of the operand is
generated by adding a content value to the
contents of the register. This mode is called index
address mode.

By: Ambrose Njeru [BSc, Msc] 41