Topics I, II & III

Introduction Computer Graphics and Primitive Algorithms: Introduction to

Image and Objects, Image Representation, Basic Graphics Pipeline, Bitmap and
Vector-Based Graphics, Applications of Computer Graphics, Display Devices,
Cathode Ray Tubes, Raster-Scan Display, Random-Scan Display, Flat Panel
Display, Input Technology, Coordinate System Overview,

Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Introduction to Image and Objects
1.3 Image Representation
1.4 Basic Graphics Pipeline
1.5 Bitmap and Vector-Based Graphics
1.6 Applications of Computer Graphics
1.7 Display Devices
1.7.1 Cathode Ray Tubes
1.7.2 Raster-Scan Display
1.7.3 Random-Scan Display
1.7.4 Flat Panel Display
1.8 Input Technology
1.9 Coordinate System Overview
1.10 Let us sum up
1.4 References and Suggested Reading
1.5 Exercise

1.0 OBJECTIVES

The objective of this chapter is:

o To understand the basics of computer graphics.
o To be aware of applications of computer graphics.
o To know the elements of computer graphics.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Computer graphics involves display, manipulation and storage of pictures

and experimental data for proper visualization using a computer. It provides
methods for producing images and animations (sequence of images). It deals with
the hardware as well as software support for generating images.

Basically, there are four major operations that we perform in computer graphics:
 Imaging: refers to the representation of 2D images.
 Modeling: refers to the representation of 3D images.
 Rendering: refers to the generation of 2D images from 3D models.
 Animation: refers to the simulation of sequence of images over time.
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO IMAGE AND OBJECTS

An image is basically representation of a real world object on a computer. It

can be an actual picture display, a stored page in a video memory, or a source
code generated by a program. Mathematically, an image is a two - dimensional
array of data with intensity or a color value at each element of the array.

Objects are real world entities defined in three – dimensional world

coordinates. In computer graphics we deal with both 2D and 3D descriptions of an
object. We also study the algorithms and procedures for generation and
manipulation of objects and images in computer graphics.

Check your Progress:

1. Define image and object.
2. How an image is represented mathematically?

1.3 IMAGE REPRESENTATION

Image representation is the approximations of the real world displayed in a
computer. A picture in computer graphics is represented as a collection of discrete
picture elements termed as pixels. A pixel is the smallest element of picture or
object that can be represented on the screen of a device like computer.

Check your progress:

1. Define pixel.

1.4 BASIC GRAPHIC PIPELINE

In computer graphics, the graphics pipeline refers to a series of interconnected

stages through which data and commands related to a scene go through during
rendering process. It takes us from the mathematical description of an object to its
representation on the device. The figure shown below illustrates a 3D graphic
pipeline.

Figure 1.1: A 3D graphic pipeline

 The real world objects are represented in world coordinate system. It is then
projected onto a view plane. The projection is done from the viewpoint of the
position of a camera or eye. There is an associated camera coordinate system
whose z axis specifies the view direction when viewed from the viewpoint. The
infinite volume swept by the rays emerging from the viewpoint and passing through
the window is called as view volume or view pyramid. Clipping planes (near and
far) are used to limit the output of the object.

The mapping of an object to a graphic device requires the transformation of view

plane coordinates to physical device coordinates. There are two steps involved in
this process.

(i) The window to a viewport transformation. The viewport is basically a sub –

rectangle of a fixed rectangle known as logical screen.
(ii) The transformation of logical screen coordinates to physical device
coordinates.

Transform into Clip against Project to view Transform to

camera view volume plane viewport
coordinates

Representation Transform to
of 3D world physical device
objects coordinates

Figure : Sequence of transformation in viewing pipeline

Representation Clip against Transport to Transform to

of 2D world window viewport physical device
objects coordinates

Figure 1.2: 2D coordinate system to physical device coordinates transformation.

The figures above depict the graphic pipeline and the 2D coordinate transformation
to physical device coordinates.

Check your Progress:

1. Differentiate between world coordinates system and camera coordinate
system.
2. Define view volume.
1.5 BITMAP AND VECTOR – BASED GRAPHICS

Computer graphics can be classified into two categories: Raster or

Bitmap graphics and Vector graphics.

Bitmap graphics:
It is pixel based graphics. The position and color information about the image
are stored in pixels arranged in grid pattern. The Image size is determined on
the basis of image resolution. These images cannot be scaled easily. Bitmap
images are used to represent photorealistic images which involve complex color
variations.

Figure 1.3
(a) An arrow image (b) magnified arrow image with pixel grid

The above figure shows a bitmap arrow image in its actual size and
magnified image with pixel grid.

Vector graphics:
The images in vector graphics are basically mathematically based images.
Vector based images have smooth edges and therefore used to create curves
and shapes.

Figure 1.4
(a) A rose image (b) vector description of leaf of rose

These images are appropriate for precise illustrations but not good for
photorealistic images. These images are easily scalable due to their
mathematical structure. Figure 1.4(a) and (b) shows a rose image and vector
description of leaf of rose.

Figure 1.5 (a) A bitmap image (b) a vector image

The above figure shows a bitmap and vector image of the letter A.

Check your Progress:

1. Which graphic system is better for photorealistic images?
2. In which graphic system images are easily scalable?

1.6 APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Computer graphics finds its application in various areas; some of the important
areas are discussed below:

Computer-Aided Design: In engineering and architectural systems, the

products are modeled using computer graphics commonly referred as CAD
(Computer Aided Design). In many design applications like automobiles,
aircraft, spacecraft, etc., objects are modeled in a wireframe outline that helps
the designer to observe the overall shape and internal features of the objects.
CAD applications are also used in computer animations. The motion of an
object can be simulated using CAD.

Presentation graphics: In applications like summarizing of data of financial,

statistical, mathematical, scientific and economic research reports, presentation
graphics are used. It increases the understanding using visual tools like bar
charts, line graphs, pie charts and other displays.

Computer Art: A variety of computer methods are available for artists for
designing and specifying motions of an object. The object can be painted
electronically on a graphic tablet using stylus with different brush strokes, brush
widths and colors. The artists can also use combination of 3D modeling
packages, texture mapping, drawing programs and CAD software to paint and
visualize any object.

Entertainment: In making motion pictures, music videos and television shows,

computer graphics methods are widely used. Graphics objects can be
combined with live actions or can be used with image processing techniques to
transform one object to another (morphing).

Education and training: Computer graphics can make us understand the

functioning of a system in a better way. In physical systems, biological systems,
population trends, etc., models makes it easier to understand.
In some training systems, graphical models with simulations help a trainee to
train in virtual reality environment. For example, practice session or training of
ship captains, aircraft pilots, air traffic control personnel.

Visualization: For analyzing scientific, engineering, medical and business data

or behavior where we have to deal with large amount of information, it is very
tedious and ineffective process to determine trends and relationships among
them. But if it is converted into visual form, it becomes easier to understand.
This process is termed as visualization.

Image processing: Image processing provides us techniques to modify or

interpret existing images. One can improve picture quality through image
processing techniques and can also be used for machine perception of visual
information in robotics.
 In medical applications, image processing techniques can be applied for image
enhancements and is been widely used for CT (Computer X-ray Tomography)
and PET (Position Emission Tomography) images.

Graphical User Interface: GUI commonly used these days to make a software
package more interactive. There are multiple window system, icons, menus,
which allows a computer setup to be utilized more efficiently.

Check your progress:

1. Fill in the blanks

............ provides us techniques to modify or interpret existing images.

2. Explain how computer graphics are useful in computer vision industry.
 1.7 DISPLAY DEVICES
There are various types of displays like CRT, LCD and Plasma. We will
discuss each of these three in brief.

CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) is one of the mostly used display technology. In
CRT, a beam of electrons emitted by an electron gun strikes on specified
positions on phosphor coated screen after passing through focusing and
deflecting systems.

Figure 1.6 : Elements of CRT

LCD Display: LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display

o Organic molecules that remain in crystalline structure without external force, but
re-aligns themselves like liquid under external force
o So LCDs realigns themselves to EM field and changes their own polarizations

Figure 1.7 : LCD display

There are two types of LCD displays:

o Active Matrix LCD:

 Electric field is retained by a capacitor so that the crystal remains in a constant
state.
  Transistor switches are used to transfer charge into the capacitors during
scanning.
 The capacitors can hold the charge for significantly longer than the refresh
 period
  Crisp display with no shadows.
 More expensive to produce.

o Passive matrix LCD:

 LCD slowly transit between states.
 In scanned displays, with a large number of pixels, the percentage of the time
that LCDs are excited is very small.
 Crystals spend most of their time in intermediate states, being neither "On" or
"Off".
 These displays are not very sharp and are prone to ghosting.

Plasma display:

Figure1.8 (showing the basic structure of plasma display)

o These are basically fluorescent tubes.

o High- voltage discharge excites gas mixture (He, Xe), upon relaxation UV light
is emitted, UV light excites phosphors.
o Some of its features are
Large view angle
Large format display
Less efficient than CRT, more power
Large pixels: 1mm (0.2 mm for CRT)
Phosphors depletion
 In CRT monitors there are two techniques of displaying images.

o Raster scan displays: A rectangular array of points or dots. In a raster scan

system, the electron beam is swept across the screen, one row at a time from
top to bottom. As the electron beam moves across each row, the beam intensity
is turned on and off to create a pattern of illuminated spots. See the figure
below.

Figure 1.9 : Raster scan display

 Horizontal retrace: The return to the left of the screen, after refreshing each
scan line.

 Vertical retrace: At the end of each frame (displayed in 1/80th to 1/60th of a
second) the electron beam returns to the top left corner of the screen to begin
the next frame.

Figure 1.10 (showing horizontal and vertical retrace)

 Random scan display: Random scan display is the use of geometrical
primitives such as points, lines, curves, and polygons, which are all based upon
mathematical equation. In a random scan display, a CRT has the electron beam
directed only to the parts of the screen where a picture is to be drawn. Random
scan monitors draw a picture one line at a time. See the figure below.

Figure 1.11: Random Scan display

o Refresh rate depends on the number of lines to be displayed.

o Picture definition is now stored as a line-drawing commands an area of memory
referred to as refresh display file.
o To display a picture, the system cycle through the set of commands in the
display file, drawing each component line in turn.
o Random scan displays are designed to draw all the component lines of a
picture 30 to 60 times each second.
o Random scan displays have higher resolution than raster systems.

There are some parameters or properties related to graphic displays like CRT:
Persistence: In case of CRT, persistence refers to the property of a phosphor
defining its life time, i.e., how long they continue to emit light after the CRT
beam is removed.

Resolution: The maximum number of points that can be displayed without

overlap on a CRT is referred to as the resolution. In other words, it is the
number of points per unit length that can be plotted horizontally and vertically.

Aspect ratio: It is the ratio of the number of vertical points to the number of
horizontal points necessary to produce equal-length lines in both directions on
the screen.

Frame buffer: Frame buffer also known as refresh buffer is the memory area
that holds the set of intensity values for all the screen points.

Pixel: It refers a point on the screen. It is also known as pel and is shortened
form of ‘picture element’.
 Bitmap or pixmap: A frame buffer is said to be bitmap on a black and white
system with one bit per pixel. For systems with multiple bits per pixel, the frame
buffer is referred to as pixmap.

Graphical images - used to add emphasis, direct attention, illustrate concepts,

and provide background content. Two types of graphics:
o Draw-type graphics or vector graphics – represent an image as a geometric
shape
o Bitmap graphics – represents the image as an array of dots, called pixels

Three basic elements for drawing in graphics are:

o Point: A point marks a position in space. In pure geometric terms, a point is a

pair of x, y coordinates. It has no mass at all. Graphically, however, a point
takes form as a dot, a visible mark. A point can be an insignificant fleck of
matter or a concentrated locus of power. It can penetrate like a bullet, pierce
like a nail, or pucker like a kiss. A mass of points becomes texture, shape, or
plane. Tiny points of varying size create shades of gray.

o Line: A line is an infinite series of points. Understood geometrically, a line has

length, but no breadth. A line is the connection between two points, or it is the
path of a moving point. A line can be a positive mark or a negative gap. Lines
appear at the edges of objects and where two planes meet. Graphically, lines
exist in many weights; the thickness and texture as well as the path of the mark
determine its visual presence. Lines are drawn with a pen, pencil, brush,
mouse, or digital code. They can be straight or curved, continuous or broken.
When a line reaches a certain thickness, it becomes a plane. Lines multiply to
describe volumes, planes, and textures.

o Plane: A plane is a flat surface extending in height and width. A plane is the
path of a moving line; it is a line with breadth. A line closes to become a shape,
a bounded plane. Shapes are planes with edges. In vector–based software,
every shape consists of line and fill. A plane can be parallel to the picture
surface, or it can skew and recede into space. Ceilings, walls, floors, and
windows are physical planes. A plane can be solid or perforated, opaque or
transparent, textured or smooth.

Check your progress:

1. Explain different display technologies.
2. Differentiate between Raster scan and Random scan display.

1.8 INPUT TECHNOLOGY

There are different techniques for information input in graphical system. The
input can be in the form of text, graphic or sound. Some of the commonly used
input technologies are discussed below.

1.8.1Touch Screens
A touch screen device allows a user to operate a touch sensitive device by
simply touching the display screen. The input can be given by a finger or passive
objects like stylus. There are three components of a touch screen device: a touch
sensor, a controller and a software driver.

A touch sensor is a touch sensitive clear glass panel. A controller is a small

PC card which establishes the connection between a touch sensor and the PC.
The software driver is a software that allows the touch screen to work together with
the PC. The touch screen technology can be implemented in various ways like
resistive, surface acoustic, capacitive, infrared, strain gauge, optical imaging,
dispersive signal technology, acoustic pulse recognition and frustrated total internal
reflection.

1.8.2 Light pen

A light pen is pen shaped pointing device which is connected to a visual
display unit. It has light sensitive tip which detects the light from the screen when
placed against it which enables a computer to locate the position of the pen on the
screen. Users can point to the image displayed on the screen and also can draw
any object on the screen similar to touch screen with more accuracy.
1.8.3 Graphic tablets
Graphic tablets allow a user to draw hand draw images and graphics in the
similar way as is drawn with a pencil and paper.

It consists of a flat surface upon which the user can draw or trace an image
with the help of a provided stylus. The image is generally displayed on the
computer monitor instead of appearing on the tablet itself.

Check your Progress:

1. Name different types of touch screen technologies.
2. Differentiate between light pen and graphic tablet.
1.9 COORDINATE SYSTEM OVERVIEW

To define positions of points in space one requires a coordinate system. It is

way of determining the position of a point by defining a set of numbers called as
coordinates. There are different coordinate systems for representing an object in
2D or 3D.

1.9.1 Cartesian coordinate system

It is also known as rectangular coordinate system and can be of two or three
dimensions. A point in Cartesian coordinate system can be defined by specifying
two numbers, called as x – coordinate and the y – coordinate of that point.

Figure 1.12: Cartesian coordinate system

In the above figure, there are two points (2, 3) and (3, 2) are specified in Cartesian
coordinate system

1.9.2 Polar coordinate system

In polar coordinate system, the position of a point is defined by specifying the
distance (radius) from a fixed point called as origin and the angle between the line
joining the point and the origin and the polar axis (horizontal line passing through
the origin).

Figure 1.13: Polar coordinate system

The above figure shows a point (r, θ) in polar coordinates.

Check your Progress:

Fill in the blanks

1. The position of a point is defined by specifying the distance (radius) from a
fixed point called as ……….

2. A point in Cartesian coordinate system can be defined by specifying two

numbers, called as …….. and the ………… of that point.

1.10 SUMMARY

We learnt about computer graphics, its application in different areas. We

studied various display and input technologies. We also studied basic graphic
pipeline, bitmap and vector based graphics. Then we learnt the elements of
computer graphics in which came to know about the terms like persistence,
resolution, aspect ratio, frame buffer, pixel and bitmap. Finally we studied about the
coordinate system.

1.11 EXERCISE

1. What are the major operations that we perform on Computer Graphics?

2. Define some of the applications of Computer Graphics.
3. Define graphic pipeline and the process involved in it.
4. Differentiate between bitmap and vector based graphics.
5. Define the following terms:
a. Persistence
b. Aspect ratio
c. Frame buffer
d. Resolution
e. Pixel
6. Define horizontal and vertical retrace.

