ETHICS REVIEWER😜😜 Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle

Orientation- the highest stage of functioning.

MODULE 9: The Six Stages of Moral
Development MODULE 10: REASON AND IMPARTIALITY AS
REQUIREMENTS FOR ETHICS
Lawrence Kohlberg - american psychologist
and educator known for his theory of moral Reason-is the ability of the mind to think,
development. understand and form judgments by a
process of logic.
Level 1: Preconventional level - It is an innate and exclusive human ability that utilizes
At the preconventional level, morality is new or existing information as bases
externally controlled. Rules imposed by to consciously make sense out of thing while applying
authority figures are conformed to in order to logic. It is also associated with thinking,
avoid punishment or receive rewards. This cognition, and intellect
perspective involves the idea that what is
right is what one can get away with or what is Impartiality- it is the quality of being
personally satisfying. unbiased and objective in creating moral
decision.
Stage 1: Punishment/obedience Impartiality in morality requires that we give
orientation equal and/or adequate consideration to the
Behaviour is determined by consequences. interests of all concerned parties.
The individual will obey in order to avoid
punishment. Moral Reasoning- the morally right thing to
do is always the thing supported with
Stage 2: Instrumental purpose arguments.
orientation
Behaviour is determined again by Reason and impartiality become the basic
consequences. The individual focuses on prerequisite for morality as one is excepted to
receiving rewards or satisfying personal be able to deliver clear, concise, rightful, and
needs. appropriate judgments made out of logic and
understanding
Level 2: Conventional level in an unbiased and unprejudiced manner while
At the conventional level, conformity to social considering the general welfare to accurately
rules remains important to the individual. The concoct moral decisions.
individual strives to support rules that are set
forth by others such as parents, peers, and MODULE 11: FEELINGS AND REASON
the government in order to win their approval
or to maintain social order. According to Ells (2014), emotion is a response to stimuli
based on past experiences which is made instinctively
Stage 3: Good Boy/Nice Girl Orientation while reason is a form of personal justification which
Behavior is determined by social approval.
changes from person to person based on their own
ethical and moral code, as well as prior experience.
Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation
Researchers (and some philosophers) now see emotion
Societal rules and laws determine behavior
and reason as tightly intertwined. Emotion and reason
Level 3: Post-Conventional Level are jointly at work when we judge the conduct of others
the individual moves beyond the perspective or make choices ourselves.
of his/her own society For one thing, feelings or emotions are said to be
judgments about the accomplishment of one’s goals.
Stage 5: Social Contract orientation. Emotions, it is thus concluded, can be rational in being
Individual rights determine behavior-the based at least sometimes on good judgments about how
individual views of laws and rules as flexible well a circumstance or agent accomplishes appropriate
tools for improving human purposes. objectives. Feelings are also visceral or instinctual by
providing motivations to act morally (De Guzman et al.
2017). Ideal Observer Theory: the view that what is
right is determined by the attitudes that
Reason when removed from emotion, a hypothetical ideal observer (a being who
allows a person to make conscious is perfectly rational, imaginative and
decisions based on fact, with no informed) would have.
references to personal involvement. The
use of reason as a way of knowing, allows for 2. Emotivism.
the knower to see the consequences of their The term emotivism refers to a theory
actions through-out the decision-making about moral judgments, sentences,
process. words, and speech acts; it is sometimes
also extended to cover aesthetic and
other nonmoral forms of evaluation
Emotivism is actually the most popular form of non-
cognitivism, the meta-ethical theory that claims that
Feeling-based Theories in Ethics ethical sentences do not convey authentic propositions.
Moral judgments, according to Emotivism, are not
1. Ethical Subjectivism. This theory basically statements of fact but are mere expressions of the
utter runs contrary to the principle that there emotions of the speaker especially since they are usually
is objectivity in morality. Fundamentally a feelings—based (De Guzman et al. 2017).
meta-ethically theory, it is not about what - Emotivists believe that moral language expresses
things are good and what are things are bad. emotions and tries to influence others; it has no
It does not tell how we should live or what
cognitive content. If I say homosexuality is evil,
moral norms we should practice. Instead, it is
I’m just expressing my feeling that homosexuality is
a theory about the nature or moral judgments
disgusting! I am expressing my emotions and, at the same
-holds that there are no objective moral
properties and that ethical statements time, trying to influence you to dislike homosexuality.
are in fact arbitrary because they do not
express immutable truths. Instead, moral Criticisms on Ethical Subjectivism and
statements are made true or false by Emotivism
the attitudes and/or conventions of the
observers, and any ethical sentence just Ethical Subjectivism has implications that
implies an attitude, opinion, personal are contrary to what we believe about
preference or feeling held by someone. the nature of moral judgments.it also
implies that each of us is infallible so as long
Simple Subjectivism: the view (largely as as we are honestly expressing our respective
described above) that ethical statements feelings about moral issues. Furthermore, it
reflect sentiments, personal preferences cannot account for the fact of disagreement in
and feelings rather than objective facts. Ethics.
Emotivism- emotivism presupposes that moral
Individualist Subjectivism: the view (originally disagreements are incapable of being resolved by
put forward by Protagoras) that there are as rational discourse. There is no way to resolve our
many distinct scales of good and evil as attitudinal disagreements unless we are persuasive
there are individuals in the world. It is enough (or violent enough). But we have already seen
effectively a form of Egoism, which maintains that there’s another way to persuade—using reason to
that every human being ought to pursue what support our position. We can provide
is in his or her self-interest exclusively. good reasons why x is right or x is wrong.

Moral Relativism (or Ethical Relativism): the Feelings Can Help in Making the Right Decision
view that for a thing to be morally right
is for it to be approved of by society, 1. Don’t accept the problem as given.
leading to the conclusion that different things 2. Listen to both your heart and head.
are right for people in different societies and 3. Watch your language.
different periods in history. 4. Take special care in dimly lit places.
5. Be modest about your virtue. Good Will-indicates that the act was carried out with the
6. Understand why others transgress. best of intentions.
7. Don’t give up on yourself (or on others). The good will implies the achievability of what is known
though reason. Generally, will is a faculty od the mind
MODULE 12: THE 7-STEP MORAL REASONING that at the moment of decision is always present. For
Kant, there is only one good which can be called good
1. Stop and think- before making any decision take a without any qualification- the good motive or good will.
moment to think pf the ff.
a. Situation itself In a nutshell, Reason is the foundation of morality and
b. Your role in the situation the source of is the goodwill.
c. Other internal/ external factors such as For example, the basis of our actions is our prior
• People who might get involved in the result of the knowledge of somethings. The purpose of why we wish to
decision buy rubber shoes is that because we have prior
• Potential effects of the decision knowledge that rubber shoes is good for sports. To insist
2. Clarify Goals-determine short-term and long-term and the actual purchase of the rubber shoes, our will
goals. pushed us to do so.
Short-term goals are those that need to be accomplished
right after or immediately after a decision is made. A MODULE 14 MORAL THEORIES
long-term goal is that which the result may come out
after some times. It is important because that is going to Theory- is a structured statement used to
be the basis of what one wishes to accomplish explains a set of facts or concepts.
3. Determine Facts-considered essential Information.
4. Develop Options- make a lists of actions that are
possibly be your options. Moral Theory- explains why a certain
5. Consider consequences-consider consequences of action is wrong or why we ought to act in
every option. certain ways.
6. Choose-after considering all the consequences then it
is time for you to choose Moral Subjectivism- is where right or wrong
are determined based on your personal
7. Monitor and Modify-monitor the effect of your
assessment and judgment.
decisions then modify.
Cultural Relativism- implies that we cannot
MODULE 13: REASON AND WILL criticize actions of those in cultures
other than our own.
Reason-is the power of producing intooneness, by Right and wrong is determined by the
means of understandable theories concepts that are particular set of principles or rules the
provided by the mind relevant culture
Reasoning is the process of drawing out conclusion from just happens to hold at the time. This is
the previous knowledge. In other words, reason is also based on the idea that different people
associated with knowledge. Knowledge is something that have different cultures that are why right or
one acquires as he studies, gets matured and wrong is based on how one’s culture dictates
professional. The term reason is also used in other morality.
context as a disagreement to sensation, perception,
feeling, and desire. Ethical Egoism- Right or wrong is determined
by self-interest.
There are three points in Kant’ reason:
1. the relation of reason to empirical truth; Divine Command Theory-without religion
2. reason’s role in scientific inquiry; and there is no morality Right and wrong
3. the positive gains that come from appreciating reason’s comes. from the commands of God.
limits.
Virtue Ethics- is a moral theory that is
concerned with the moral character
orgoodness of the individual carrying out an
action. Right and wrong are characterized in terms of
acting in accordance with the traditional virtues --
making a good person.

Feminist Ethics- right and wrong are to be

found in Women's responses to the
relationship ofcaring.

Utilitarianism- is a consequentialist moral

theory. Making decision based on what will
benefit the majority. Right and wrong is determined
by the overall goodness (utility) of the consequences of
the action

Kantian Theory- right and wrong is

determined by rationality, giving
universalduties.
1. You ought to do your duty
2. Reasons guides you to this conclusion.
3. Good Will is the only thing that is
goodwithout qualification.

Contractarianism- the rightness/wrongness of

an action is determined by whether
rational people do, or under appropriate
conditions would agree to it.
The principles of right and wrong (or Justice)
are those which everyone in society would
agree upon in forming a social contract.