Python and SQL, PySpark and Airflow, Snowflake,AWS like (S3, Glue, Athena ,Redshift, EMR, EC2, RDS,

DMS
lambda,SNS, IAM)

1. Components of a Website
 Client: The user’s device or browser.
 Network: Pathway connecting client and server.
 Server: Provides requested content to the client.
2. Components of a Server
 Compute (CPU): Handles processing tasks.
 Storage: Hard drives, SSDs, or databases.
 Memory (RAM): Temporary storage for fast processing.
 Network: Routers, switches, DNS for connectivity.
On-Premises Infrastructure (Traditional Approach)
Disadvantages
 Limited Scaling: Expensive and slow to add capacity.
 High Costs: Major upfront investment and ongoing maintenance.
 Maintenance Requirements: Continuous hardware and software upkeep.
 Disaster Risk: Susceptible to data loss.
Benefits of Cloud Computing
1. Managed Services: Cloud provider handles infrastructure management.
2. Data Security: Built-in protection and compliance support.
3. On-Demand Delivery: Scale resources based on real-time needs.
4. Geographic Redundancy: Data backed up across multiple locations.
Cloud Computing Basics
 Definition: On-demand access to compute, storage, and networking resources.
 Pricing: Pay-as-you-go; only pay for what you use.
 Availability: Instantly available resources without long-term contracts.
Cloud Deployment Models
1. Public Cloud: Resources shared across multiple users (AWS, Azure, GCP).
2. Private Cloud: Dedicated to one organization, better for sensitive data.
3. Hybrid Cloud: Mix of public and private, often for secure and scalable needs.
4. Multi-Cloud: Use of multiple public clouds to avoid vendor lock-in.
Types of Cloud Services

IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service): Provides virtual machines, storage, network.

1. PaaS (Platform as a Service): Provider manages OS, database, middleware.
2. SaaS (Software as a Service): Fully managed applications (e.g., Gmail, Salesforce).
Cloud Pricing Basics
1. Compute: Billed by usage time (per second, minute, or hour).
2. Storage: Charged by GB, with extra costs for access requests.
3. Networking:
o Data Inbound: Free.
o Data Outbound: Charged based on outbound volume.
AWS Infrastructure Basics
 AWS Console: Web interface for managing AWS services and billing.
 Free Tier: Limited free access to services for the first 12 months.
 Regions: Different locations globally; chosen for compliance, latency, and service availability.
 Availability Zones (AZs): Separate data centers in each region with redundant power and connectivity
for high availability and fault tolerance.
AWS IAM Cheat Sheet
1. Why Access Management is Necessary?
 Controls who has access to AWS resources.
 Ensures security by managing permissions based on roles and responsibilities.
2. Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA)
 Adds a second layer of security by requiring a unique code in addition to the password.
 Recommended for root user and privileged accounts to prevent unauthorized access.
 3. User Groups
 Purpose: Provides permissions to multiple users simultaneously by attaching a policy.
 Structure:
o Groups contain only users, not other groups.
o Users can belong to multiple groups.
 Usage: Helps organize permissions (e.g., Admin, Read-Only groups).
4. Users
 Purpose: Avoids the use of the root account for regular tasks.
 Permissions: Least Privilege Principle (grant only required permissions).
 Credentials:
o Password: For AWS Console access.
o Access Keys: For CLI/API access.
5. Roles
 Purpose: Grants temporary access between AWS services (e.g., EC2 accessing S3).
 Temporary Credentials: Ideal for applications or services needing limited access.
6. Policies
 Definition: JSON documents that define permissions.
 Types:
o AWS Managed: Predefined by AWS.
o Custom Policies: Created by users for specific needs.
 Policy Inheritance and Inline Policies:
o Policy Inheritance: Permissions are combined when a user belongs to multiple groups.
o Inline Policies: Policies directly attached to a user or group, not reusable.
7. Access Reports
 Access Analyzer: Account-level, lists users and the status of their credentials.
 Credentials Report: User-level, details permissions and last accessed times for each service.
Demo Summary: Creating Two Users with Different Access Levels
1. Create Two Users in IAM.
o User 1: Read-Only access to S3 objects.
o User 2: Full Access to S3 objects.
2. Attach Policies:
o Attach AmazonS3ReadOnlyAccess to User 1.
o Attach AmazonS3FullAccess to User 2.
3. Verify Access:
o Confirm User 1 can view but not modify S3 objects.
o Confirm User 2 has full access to create, view, and delete S3 objects.
Ways to Access AWS
1. AWS Management Console
 Purpose: Web-based, user-friendly interface for managing AWS services.
 Protection: Secured with a password.
 Key Use Cases:
o Best for visual management of resources, setting up configurations, and monitoring.
o Ideal for first-time setup of resources or quick access to services without coding.
 MFA: Strongly recommended for additional security.
2. AWS CLI (Command Line Interface)
 Purpose: Text-based interface for accessing and managing AWS services.
 Protection: Requires Access Key (Access Key ID and Secret Access Key).
 Key Use Cases:
o Ideal for automation and managing AWS resources through scripts.
o Commonly used for batch processing, repetitive tasks, and advanced configuration.
 Installation: Needs to be installed on your local machine or EC2 instance.
 Examples:
o aws s3 ls to list S3 buckets.
o aws ec2 describe-instances to retrieve EC2 instance details.
3. AWS SDKs (Software Development Kits)
 Purpose: Provides libraries for integrating AWS services into applications.
  Protection: Secured by Access Key (like the CLI).
 Popular SDKs: Support for multiple languages like Python (boto3), Java, JavaScript, .NET, etc.
 Key Use Cases:
o Automating AWS tasks within code, such as launching EC2 instances or reading S3 data.
o Essential for applications needing direct AWS interactions.
 Boto3 (Python SDK):
o Specifically for Python developers to interact with AWS.
o Widely used for automation of tasks (e.g., uploading files to S3, launching Lambda functions).
 Example in Python (Boto3):
import boto3
s3 = boto3.client('s3')
s3.upload_file("file.txt", "my-bucket", "file.txt")
1. Basics of EC2
 Virtual Machines (VMs): Software-based emulation of physical servers.
 VM Components in EC2:
o Hypervisor: Manages virtual machines.
o Virtual Hardware: Includes vCPU, vRAM, vDisk, Networking.
o OS: Choice of Linux, Windows, etc.
o Storage: EBS (persistent) and Instance Store (ephemeral).
o Instance Types: Vary based on resource needs.
2. Demo: Creating an EC2 Instance
 Ways to Connect:
1. SSH: ssh -i <path_of_key_pair> user@public-DNS
 Example: ssh -i "first_keypair.pem" [email protected]
1.amazonaws.com
2. Putty: Used on Windows with a .ppk key file.
3. EC2 Instance Connect: Browser-based SSH access.
 EC2 Configuration Options:
o OS/AMI: Select the operating system.
o Instance Type: Defines vCPU, memory, etc.
o Key Pair: For secure access.
o Security Group: Configures firewall rules.
o Storage: EBS volume configuration.
o Networking: VPC and subnet settings.
3. Instance Types
 General Purpose (t, m series): Balanced for compute, memory, and networking. Ideal for web
servers.
 Compute Optimized (c series): High computational power. Suitable for batch processing, scientific
modeling.
 Memory Optimized (r, x, z series): For large in-memory processing. Used in real-time analytics.
 Storage Optimized (i, d, h series): High I/O performance, ideal for databases and data warehousing.
4. Security Groups
 Acts as a virtual firewall for EC2 instances.
 Controls inbound and outbound traffic.
 Rules can be defined based on IP address, protocol, and port.
5. Instance Purchase Options
 On-Demand: Pay per hour/second, flexible. Best for development and testing.
 Reserved Instances: Reduced pricing for 1-3 year commitment. Good for predictable production
environments.
 Spot Instances: Up to 90% discount but interruptible. Used for batch processing.
 Dedicated Instances: Run on isolated hardware. Ideal for compliance and privacy requirements.
6. Elastic Block Storage (EBS)
 Persistent block storage for EC2.
 Can be network-attached to multiple instances.
 Snapshots: Point-in-time backups of EBS volumes, which can be copied across regions.
7. Amazon Machine Image (AMI)
  Pre-configured VM image to launch EC2 instances.
 Built from EC2 Image Builder or an existing instance.
 Contains OS, application servers, software dependencies.
8. Launch Templates
 Define configurations for creating instances.
 Simplifies launching and managing instances with standard settings.
9. Scaling Concepts
 Vertical Scaling: Increase the power (CPU, RAM) of a single instance.
 Horizontal Scaling: Add more instances to handle increased demand.
10. Elastic Load Balancer (ELB)
 Distributes incoming traffic to multiple EC2 instances.
 Types:
o Application Load Balancer (ALB): For HTTP/HTTPS traffic.
o Network Load Balancer (NLB): For ultra-low latency.
o Gateway Load Balancer (GLB): For routing traffic to virtual appliances.
11. Auto Scaling Groups (ASG)
 Automatically scales instances up or down based on demand.
 Scale-Out: Increase instances during high demand.
 Scale-In: Decrease instances when demand drops.
12. Essential EC2 Commands and Operations
 Basic Commands:
o sudo yum update: Update packages (Amazon Linux).
o mkdir <directory>: Create a directory.
o cd <directory>: Change directory.
o touch <file>: Create an empty file.
o nano <file>: Open a file in the nano editor.
o scp <file> user@host:path: Secure copy a file to an instance.
AWS CLI Configuration:
o Install: pip install awscli
o Configure: aws configure
 Prompts for Access Key ID, Secret Access Key, region, and output format.
Amazon S3
1. Block Storage vs. Object Storage
 Block Storage: Stores data in blocks, each with a unique identifier. Best for structured data and fast
access (e.g., EBS).
 Object Storage (S3): Stores data as objects within a flat structure. Suited for unstructured data like
images, videos, and backups.
2. Amazon S3 Overview
 S3 (Simple Storage Service): AWS’s cloud-based object storage solution that is secure, durable, and
highly scalable.
 Often referred to as "Infinitely Scaling Storage".
 Used for storing various file types (images, videos, documents) in Buckets and Objects.
3. Objects and Buckets
 Buckets:
o Region-specific, but globally unique names.
o Naming rules: No uppercase, no underscores, 3-63 characters, start with lowercase
letter/number, no IP addresses.
 Objects:
o Consist of data, metadata, and unique identifier.
o Object Key: Full path to the object in S3 (s3://bucket-name/folder/file).
o Max Object Size: 5 TB, with multi-part upload recommended for files >500 MB.
4. Key Features of S3
 Scalability: Automatically scales as your storage needs grow.
 Durability: 99.999999999% (11 9’s) durability, minimizing data loss risk.
 Data Encryption: At rest and in transit.
 Versioning: Protects against unintended changes, allowing rollback to previous versions.
  Access Control: Through bucket policies, ACLs, and IAM roles.
 Lifecycle Policies: Manage the lifecycle of data to move to different storage classes or delete.
 Data Replication: Supports Cross-Region (CRR) and Same-Region (SRR) replication.
5. S3 Storage Classes
 S3 Standard:
o 99.99% availability, low latency, high throughput.
o Suitable for frequently accessed data.
 S3 Standard - Infrequent Access (IA):
o For less frequently accessed data but requires rapid retrieval.
o Lower cost than Standard; retrieval charges apply.
 S3 Intelligent-Tiering:
o Automatic cost optimization across Frequent, Infrequent, and Rarely accessed tiers.
 S3 One Zone - IA:
o Data stored in a single AZ, 99.5% availability.
o Use Case: Secondary backup for data stored elsewhere.
 Amazon Glacier:
o Low-cost archival storage for long-term data.
o Retrieval options: Expedited, Standard, and Bulk.
 Glacier Deep Archive:
o Cheapest storage, suitable for rarely accessed data.
o Retrieval options: Standard and Bulk.
6. S3 Security
 Data Encryption:
o At Rest: AWS Key Management Service (KMS), S3 Server-Side Encryption (SSE-S3), and Client-
Side Encryption.
o In Transit: SSL/TLS.
 Bucket Policies: Define access controls for buckets.
 Access Control Lists (ACLs):
o Control access at the bucket or object level.
 S3 Object Lock: Prevents object version deletion for a specified period. Good for compliance.
 Glacier Vault Lock: Locks vault policies for compliance.
7. Data Management and Optimization
 S3 Lifecycle Rules: Automate transitions of objects between storage classes or deletion based on
conditions (e.g., after 30 days).
 S3 Access Logs: Track requests made to the S3 bucket for auditing.
 S3 Replication:
o Cross-Region Replication (CRR): For disaster recovery and compliance.
o Same-Region Replication (SRR): Redundancy within the same region.
8. S3 Query and Select
 Allows querying a subset of data from a large file stored in S3 using SQL-like syntax.
 Reduces data transfer and processing costs by extracting only needed data.
9. AWS Snow Family (for Edge Computing and Data Migration)
 Snowcone: Smallest; ideal for edge computing and small data transfers (up to 8 TB).
 Snowball: For transferring large amounts of data (up to 80 TB).
 Snowmobile: Massive data migration (up to 100 PB) for data center migrations.
 Edge Computing: Snow family devices can also provide computing capabilities at edge locations.
10. Important Commands and Tips
 CLI Commands:
o aws s3 ls s3://<bucket-name>: List bucket contents.
o aws s3 cp <local-path> s3://<bucket-name>/<file>: Copy a file to S3.
o aws s3 sync <local-folder> s3://<bucket-name>/<folder>: Sync a local folder to S3.
 Best Practices:
o Enable Versioning: Helps recover from accidental deletions or overwrites.
o Implement Lifecycle Rules: To move infrequently accessed data to lower-cost storage.
o Access Control: Use bucket policies, ACLs, and restrict public access unless necessary.
o Enable MFA Delete: Adds another layer of protection on versioned buckets.
 o Optimize Costs: Use Intelligent-Tiering or Glacier for archival needs.
AWS Athena
 AWS Athena: A serverless query service provided by AWS, used for querying data stored directly in
Amazon S3 using standard SQL.
 Serverless: AWS manages infrastructure; users do not manage servers, clusters, or resources directly.
This reduces operational complexity and is cost-efficient.
2. Key Features of AWS Athena
 Serverless Architecture: Fully managed by AWS, eliminating the need to set up or manage
infrastructure.
 Integration with Amazon S3: Allows seamless querying of data stored in S3.
 Standard SQL Support: Compatible with ANSI SQL, enabling users to write complex SQL queries.
 PySpark and Spark SQL Support: Enables analysis of big data using PySpark or Spark SQL, particularly
beneficial for processing larger datasets.
 Pay-Per-Query Pricing: Only pay for the data scanned per query, making it cost-effective.
 Data Format Compatibility: Supports multiple data formats (JSON, Parquet, ORC, CSV, Avro), giving
flexibility in data storage formats.
3. Query Options
 SQL: Athena supports ANSI SQL, making it versatile for data queries and analytics.
 PySpark and Spark SQL: For big data processing with Spark, Athena supports PySpark and Spark SQL
options.
4. Types of Tables in Cluster Ecosystem (Using Hive Metastore)
 Internal (Managed) Table:
o Ownership: Hive manages both the data and metadata.
o Data Deletion: Dropping an internal table deletes both the structure (metadata) and data in
S3.
o Usage Scenario: Suitable for data that requires tight control or when data deletion upon
table drop is preferred.
 External Table:
o Ownership: Hive manages only the metadata while data remains in S3 independently.
o Persistent Data: Dropping the external table removes only the schema, while data remains
intact in S3.
o Usage Scenario: Ideal for persistent data where only the table schema is temporary, such as
data lakes or raw data storage that shouldn't be deleted with the table.
5. Additional Table Configuration Concepts
 Location: Specifies where the data is stored within S3. Important for external tables to locate data
sources in S3.
 Table Properties: Additional configurations, such as column mappings, storage type, and
optimizations.
 Partitioning: Divides tables into parts based on specified keys, reducing data scan costs and query
time.
 Bucketing: Hashes data into predefined “buckets” for optimized query performance and even data
distribution.
Key Points for Interview Preparation
 Understand Serverless Benefits: Be able to explain serverless advantages, such as reduced
operational overhead and cost-effectiveness.
 Know Data Format Compatibility: Familiarize yourself with how Athena handles various data formats
like Parquet and ORC for optimized query performance.
 Internal vs. External Tables: Be ready to discuss use cases for each type and how they differ in data
and metadata management.
 Performance Optimization:
o Partitioning and Bucketing: Highlight knowledge of using these methods to minimize data
scanned and enhance query performance.
o Columnar Formats (e.g., Parquet, ORC): Explain how using columnar data formats helps
reduce I/O and improves query speed.
 Best Practices:
o Cost Control: Using partitioning and only querying necessary data to reduce scan costs.
 o Query Optimization: Filtering data using conditions (e.g., WHERE clauses) and choosing
efficient data formats.
o Security: Familiarize yourself with security measures, including AWS Identity and Access
Management (IAM) roles and permissions, to control data access in S3 and Athena.

ETL Basics
ETL (Extract, Transform, Load) is a data integration process that moves data from various sources to a target
database or data warehouse, ensuring it is cleaned, transformed, and ready for analysis.
2. Components of ETL
 A. Extract
o Data Extraction: Pulls data from source systems such as databases, files, APIs, or data lakes.
o Common sources include Salesforce, Data Lakes, and Data Warehouses.
o Change Data Capture (CDC): Captures only modified data to improve efficiency and minimize
load times.
 B. Transform
o Data Cleaning: Identifies and corrects data errors and inconsistencies.
o Data Transformation: Converts and restructures data to be compatible with the target
database.
o Data Enrichment: Adds extra information or attributes to enhance data quality.
 C. Load
o Data Staging: Stores transformed data temporarily before loading it into the target system.
o Data Loading: Inserts or updates data in the target database; often uses UPSERT for updating
existing records.
o Error Handling: Tracks and manages errors during the loading process.
3. ETL Process Flow
 A. Extraction Phase
o Connect to Source Systems: Uses connections like JDBC/ODBC to access source data.
o Data Selection: Defines rules to select relevant data for extraction.
 B. Transformation Phase
o Data Mapping: Maps data fields from source to target structure.
o Data Cleansing: Detects and corrects data quality issues.
o Data Validation: Ensures transformed data quality using frameworks like ABC (Account-
Balance-Control) validation.
o Aggregation: Combines and summarizes data for reporting.
 C. Loading Phase
o Data Staging: Holds transformed data temporarily before final loading.
o Bulk Loading: Efficiently loads large volumes of data.
o Indexing: Optimizes data retrieval in the target database.
o Post-Load Verification: Confirms successful data loading and integrity.
Popular ETL Tools
 Apache NiFi,Talend,Informatica,Microsoft SSIS (SQL Server Integration Services),Apache
Spark,Cloud-Based Services: AWS Glue, AWS EMR, GCP Dataproc
Other Data Processing Architectures
 ELT (Extract, Load, Transform): For modern data warehouses; data is loaded first and then
transformed within the target system.
 EtLT (Extract, Transform Lite, Load, Transform): Data is extracted, partially transformed, loaded, and
then fully transformed in the target warehouse.
Key Points for Interview Preparation
 Understand ETL vs ELT: Be able to explain the difference and when to use each based on the data
architecture and tools.
 Explain Key Transformations: Focus on how data cleaning, validation, and enrichment are handled,
especially in complex ETL flows.
 ETL Tool Expertise: Be prepared to discuss your experience with specific tools like AWS Glue, Talend,
or Apache Spark.
  Error Handling and Logging: Familiarity with handling, logging, and monitoring errors during ETL to
maintain data integrity.
 Optimization Techniques: Discuss ways to optimize data retrieval and storage, like indexing and
partitioning.
AWS Glue Cheat Sheet
 AWS Glue is a serverless data integration and ETL (Extract, Transform, Load) service designed for
discovering, preparing, and combining data from various sources.
 Primarily used for data analysis, machine learning, and application development.
Key Features
1. Managed ETL Service:
o Serverless infrastructure—AWS handles most of the provisioning.
2. Data Catalog:
o Centralized metadata repository for storing information about data sources,
transformations, and target structures.
o Stores information about databases and tables logically for easy reference.
3. ETL Jobs:
o Automates the extraction, transformation, and loading of data between sources and targets.
4. Crawlers:
o Automatically discover schemas in data sources and create tables in the Data Catalog.
5. Triggers:
o Allows ETL jobs scheduling based on time or events (e.g., on-demand, schedule, or event-
driven).
6. Connections:
o Manages connections for database access used in ETL workflows.
7. Workflow:
o Orchestrates and automates ETL workflows by sequencing jobs, triggers, and crawlers.
8. Serverless Architecture:
o No need to manage infrastructure, facilitating scalable and reliable operations.
9. Scalability and Reliability:
o Built-in fault tolerance and retries; provides data durability for critical tasks.
10. Development Endpoints:
 Supports interactive development, debugging, and testing via Zeppelin or Jupyter Notebooks.
Detailed Components
A. Glue Crawler
 Data Sources: Supports S3, JDBC, DynamoDB, Redshift, RDS, MongoDB.
 Crawling Options:
o Can crawl all sub-folders, new sub-folders only, or based on events.
 Custom Classifiers: Defines schema for non-standard file formats (e.g., JSON, CSV).
o Supports grok, XML, JSON, CSV.
 IAM Roles: Access control for Glue to interact with S3 and other services.
 Scheduling: Can be set to run on-demand, time-based, or custom schedules.
B. Glue ETL Job
 Job Creation Methods:
o Visual: Uses sources, transformations, and targets in a visual interface.
o Spark Script Editor: Provides the flexibility to code complex transformations.
 Key Glue Concepts:
o GlueContext: Acts as a wrapper for Glue’s functionality.
o Dynamic Frame: Specialized data frame for Glue, supports easy transformation.
o Transformation Functions: e.g., Create_dynamic_frame, write_dynamic_frame.
 Spark Script Example:
o Convert between dynamic frames and Spark DataFrames to leverage Spark transformations.
o Example functions:
python
Copy code
spark_df = dynamic_frame.toDF() # Dynamic Frame to Spark DF
 dynamic_frame = DynamicFrame.fromDF(spark_df, glueContext, "dynamic_frame") # Spark DF to
Dynamic Frame
 Important Note: Always place transformation code between job.init() and job.commit().
C. Glue Triggers
 Trigger Types:
o Scheduled: Recurring jobs.
o Event-Driven: Triggers based on ETL job or Crawler events.
o On-Demand: Manual execution.
o EventBridge: Event-based automation.
 Conditional Logic: Allows ALL or ANY conditions for resource triggers.
D. Glue Workflows
 Automates ETL workflows with dependencies and execution order.
 Components:
o Triggers: Define conditions.
o Nodes: Represent jobs or crawlers.
 Workflow Blueprints: Predefined templates for common workflows.
Interview Preparation Tips
 Understand Glue ETL Components: Be ready to explain the roles of Crawlers, Triggers, Workflows, and
the Data Catalog.
 Explain Dynamic Frames: Highlight the differences between Spark DataFrames and Glue Dynamic
Frames, particularly for data integration.
 Error Handling and Scalability: Be prepared to discuss how Glue manages retries, fault tolerance, and
large-scale data operations.
 Serverless Benefits: Emphasize cost savings, scalability, and reduced infrastructure management.
 Data Transformation Knowledge: Be familiar with transformation functions in Glue, such as schema
changes, joins, filtering, and aggregation.
 Glue Use Cases: Describe scenarios for using Glue in real-world applications like data lake
management, machine learning pipeline prep, or reporting data integration.
AWS Elastic MapReduce (EMR)
 Amazon EMR is a managed cluster platform used for big data processing and analytics, providing a
scalable solution for running frameworks like Apache Spark, Hadoop, Flink, and more.
1. EMR Architecture and Provisioning
 A) Application Bundle:
o Preconfigured application sets provided by EMR for different big data frameworks.
o Examples: Spark, Core Hadoop, Flink, or Custom configurations.
 B) AWS Glue Data Catalog Integration:
o Allows EMR to use AWS Glue as an external metastore for shared metadata management
across services.
 C) Operating System Options:
o Custom AMIs can be configured for tailored OS requirements.
 D) Cluster Configuration:
1. Instance Groups:
 Each node group (primary, core, task) uses a single instance type.
2. Instance Fleets:
 Allows up to 5 instance types per node group for flexible, cost-effective scaling.
 E) Cluster Scaling and Provisioning:
o Manual Cluster Size: Fixed number of nodes specified by the user.
o EMR Managed Scaling: Sets min/max node limits, scaling handled by EMR.
o Custom Automatic Scaling: Min/max limits with user-defined scaling rules.
 F) Steps:
o Defined jobs that can be submitted to the EMR cluster, such as ETL, analysis, or ML jobs.
 G) Cluster Termination:
o Manual: Terminate through console or CLI.
o Automatic Termination: After a specified idle period (recommended).
o Termination Protection: Prevents accidental termination; needs to be disabled for manual
termination if enabled.
  H) Bootstrap Actions:
o Custom scripts run at cluster startup for installing dependencies or configuration.
 I) Cluster Logs:
o Configure an S3 location for storing EMR logs for monitoring and debugging.
 J) IAM Roles:
o Service Role: EMR actions for cluster provisioning and management.
o EC2 Instance Profile: Access for EC2 nodes to AWS resources.
o Custom Scaling Role: For custom auto-scaling.
 K) EBS Root Volume:
o Add extra storage for applications needing high-capacity storage on EMR nodes.
2. Submitting Applications to the Cluster
 AWS Management Console: Submit steps or use EMR Notebooks for interactive analysis.
 AWS CLI: Commands for cluster creation, step addition, termination, etc.
 AWS SDK (e.g., boto3 for Python): API calls to interact with EMR programmatically.
 command-runner.jar:
o Utility for executing custom commands and scripts on EMR, enabling task automation during
cluster initialization.
3. EMR Serverless
 EMR Serverless: Abstracts infrastructure management, allowing focus on data processing and
analytics without server provisioning.
 Simplifies big data workloads by automatically scaling resources as required.
4. EMR CLI Commands
 create-cluster: Creates a new EMR cluster.
 terminate-cluster: Terminates a running cluster.
 add-step: Adds a new step (job) to an existing cluster.
 list-clusters: Lists active clusters and their details.
5. boto3 (AWS SDK for Python)
 Overview: SDK for automating AWS service interactions through Python.
 boto3 Client: Manages AWS resources using programmatically accessed credentials, useful for scripts
to control EMR and other AWS resources.
Interview Preparation Tips
 Cluster Configuration Knowledge: Understand instance groups vs. fleets, scaling options, and
scenarios for each.
 EMR Serverless: Describe how serverless reduces complexity by managing infrastructure
automatically.
 Glue Data Catalog Integration: Explain how the Glue Data Catalog enhances metadata management in
a multi-service ecosystem.
 Bootstrap and command-runner.jar: Highlight how these can install dependencies and run custom
scripts on cluster startup.
 Use Cases for Managed Scaling vs. Custom Scaling: Discuss the cost-saving benefits and when custom
rules are preferable.
 IAM Role Setup: Detail the roles needed to provision, access other AWS services, and control scaling.
 Logging and Monitoring: Know how to set up logs in S3 for debugging and cost-monitoring purposes.
Amazon Redshift Overview:
 A petabyte-scale data warehouse service designed for analyzing large amounts of data, emphasizing
fast query performance via parallel query execution.Used for DRL queries.(Redshift is beneficial for
downstream team ie data analyst,data scientists .They access the history tables ,Incremental data is
first stored in staging table and then in history tables(merge operation ie upsert operations based on
logic)
 Redshift port no 5439
Architecture:
 Cluster Nodes: Includes Leader Node and Compute Nodes (RA3, DC2, DS2) with a columnar storage
model for efficient data storage and retrieval.
 Node Slices: Divides compute nodes for parallel data processing.
 Redshift Managed Storage (RMS): Employs columnar storage and compression techniques.
Performance Features:
  Massively parallel processing (MPP), columnar data storage, data compression, and query optimizer
with caching to enhance query speed.
Data Security:
 Utilizes SSL/TLS for encryption in transit and AES-256 for encryption at rest. Options for both server-
side and client-side encryption are available.
Serverless Components (Workgroups and Namespaces):
 Workgroup: Group of compute resources (RPUs[2 Virtual CPUs and 16 GB of RAM]) for processing.
 Namespace: Organizes storage resources like schemas, tables, and encryption keys.
Data Loading and Query Execution:WAYS to load data
 COPY Command: Loads data from sources like S3 into Redshift storage, with customizable options for
file format, compression, and error handling.(latency is less in physically attached data)
 Redshift Spectrum: Queries external tables on S3 directly, optimizing data integration without moving
it into Redshift.(latency is more in network attached data)
 UTF8
Performance Optimization:
 Use appropriate distribution styles (AUTO, EVEN, ALL, or KEY) and sort keys (COMPOUND or
INTERLEAVED) for efficient query performance.
 Workload Management (WLM) and query caching help manage and prioritize queries in multi-user
environments.
 Vacuum and Analyze Commands: Vacuum removes unused space and reorganizes data; Analyze
updates statistics, improving query plans.
Best Practices:
 Use sort keys and distribution styles effectively, compress data files, use staging tables for merging
data, and leverage the COPY command with multiple files and bulk inserts.
 Optimize data loading with sequential blocks and sort key alignment for faster performance.

Ways to Load Data into Redshift

1. Copy Command
 Internal/Managed Table Creation: Data is physically moved into the target table, consuming Redshift
storage.
 Usage Example:
COPY table_name [column_list]
FROM data_source
 Parameters:
o table_name: Target table for loading data.
o column_list (Optional): A comma-separated list of columns in the target table.
o data_source: Data source such as Amazon S3, Amazon EMR, local filesystem, or a remote
host using SSH.
o Common Options:
 FORMAT format_type: Specifies source data format (CSV, JSON, AVRO, etc.).
 DELIMITER 'delimiter': Field delimiter in the source data.
 IGNOREHEADER n: Number of header lines to skip.
 FILLRECORD: Adds null columns if source data has missing columns.
 ENCRYPTED: Indicates encrypted source data.
 MAXERROR n: Maximum data load errors allowed before failure.
 CREDENTIALS: AWS access credentials for loading from S3.
 COMPUPDATE ON|OFF: Recalculates table statistics after loading.
 GZIP: Indicates GZIP-compressed source data.
 TRUNCATECOLUMNS: Truncates data exceeding column length.
 REMOVEQUOTES: Removes surrounding quotation marks.
2. Redshift Spectrum
 External Table Creation: No data movement; data resides in S3.
 Features:
o External Tables: Metadata for querying S3 data.
o Querying: Allows SQL queries that join internal Redshift tables with external S3 data.
 o Performance: Optimizes by pushing down filters to S3 data, reducing data movement.
(incremental data ko vahi pr filter laga rahe hai hum)
 Benefits:
o Cost-Efficiency: Pay only for queries.
o Scalability: Scales with data size in S3.
o Data Integration: Analyze data from multiple sources without data replication.
o *** Separation of Storage and Compute: Flexible compute usage independent of storage.

Snapshots and Backups

 Automated Snapshots: Redshift automatically creates snapshots based on configuration.
 Manual Snapshots: Allows custom, user-initiated snapshots for specific backups.
 Restore Table from Snapshot: Quick data recovery from snapshots.

Performance Optimization and Tuning

1. Automatic Compression
o Redshift analyzes data to apply optimal compression.
2. Query Caching
o Caches results to speed up identical queries.
3. Parallel Query Execution
o Leverages Redshift's MPP (Massively Parallel Processing) to improve query performance.
4. Data Distribution Styles
o AUTO: Redshift chooses the optimal style.
o EVEN: Distributes rows evenly for tables not involved in joins.
o ALL: Replicates small tables to all nodes.
o KEY: Distributes based on a specified column key.
5. Sort Keys
o Compound Sort Key: Prioritizes sort order by columns.
o Interleaved Sort Key: Provides equal importance to columns, useful for unpredictable query
patterns.
6. Workload Management (WLM)
o Manages and prioritizes queries by defining query queues and assigning groups.
7. Vacuum and Analyze Commands
o Vacuum: Reclaims storage and sorts rows in the table.
o Vacuum Full: More aggressive; reclaims space comprehensively.
o Analyze: Refreshes statistics on data for the query planner.

Amazon Redshift Best Practices

For Designing Tables
1. Choose optimal sort keys.
2. Select the best distribution style.
3. Use automatic compression.
4. Define primary and foreign keys where applicable.
5. Use the smallest possible column size.
For Loading Data
1. Use the COPY command for large data loads.
2. Load from multiple files in a single COPY command.
3. Use staging tables for merges (upserts).
4. Compress data files.
5. Verify data files before and after load.
6. Use multi-row or bulk inserts for efficiency.
7. Load data in sort key order to leverage sort keys.
8. Load data in sequential blocks for optimal performance.
What is Psycopg2?
Psycopg2 is a PostgreSQL database adapter that lets you connect to a
PostgreSQL database, execute SQL queries, manage transactions, and retrieve
results in Python. It is designed to be both efficient and easy to use, handling
complex tasks like transaction management and connection pooling.
Task Psycopg2 Usage
ETL Processes Extracting, transforming, and loading data into PostgreSQL
Data Migration Moving data from other sources or legacy databases to PostgreSQL
Data Warehousing Aggregating and storing data for analytics
Real-Time Data Processing Writing or updating records in PostgreSQL as data arrives
Data Quality Checks Running validation queries and enforcing constraints
Scheduling Database Tasks Automating maintenance, reporting, and scheduled data updates
Cloud Service Integration Enabling cloud functions to interact with PostgreSQL in serverless setups

Amazon RDS (Relational Database Service):

 Description: A managed relational database service from AWS that streamlines the setup, operation,
and scaling of databases without handling server management directly.
 Key Features:
1. Support for Popular Engines: MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle(port no 1521), SQL Server,
MariaDB, and Amazon Aurora(popular).
2. Managed Service: Automates database tasks like provisioning, setup, patching, backups, and
scaling.
3. Scalability: Supports horizontal and vertical scaling.
4. High Availability: Achieved through multi-AZ deployments.(sustains concurrent failure ie if
data is loss from one zone we have a backup in another zone )
5. Security: Offers encryption at rest and in transit, VPC (virtual private cloud)integration, and
secure db authentication.
6. Backup and Restore: Automated backups and snapshots.
7. DB Instance Types: Varied instance types optimized for CPU, memory, and storage.
8. Cost-effective: Pay-as-you-go pricing model.
9. Maintenance: done by cloud itself
 DB Instance Classes:
1. Standard (m classes): Balanced performance.
2. Memory Optimized (r, x classes): For memory-intensive applications.
3. Burstable (t classes): Suitable for applications with periodic CPU spikes.
 Connecting RDS in AWS Glue:
1. Set up the RDS instance.
2. Create a Glue connection with type Amazon RDS.
3. Configure network settings for the Glue connection, including route tables, NAT Gateway, and
VPC endpoint.
Create nat gateway
Create endpoint ->linked route table with endpoint
Edit Network properties in glue conection->provide same vpc and subnet
** Networking is done by aws network team.
 Migration Scenario: Moving on-premises databases to RDS can be done using AWS DMS (Data
Migration Service) for data transfer.
AWS Lambda:
 Description: A Function-as-a-Service (FaaS) that runs code without requiring server management,
supporting languages like Python, Java, and C#.
 Key Features:
1. Real-Time Data Processing: Responds to events in near real-time, such as data streams from
Amazon Kinesis.
2. Scalability: Auto-scales based on workload.
 3. Event-Driven Pipelines: Can be triggered by other AWS services for workflows.
4. Cost Efficiency: Billed only for compute time used.
5. Scheduled Processing: Supports scheduled or batch data processing at set intervals.
Traffic Dataset Project on AWS:
Objective: Process and transform traffic data on AWS, leveraging RDS, Glue, and Redshift for storage and
transformation.
1. Load Datasets on RDS:
o Set Up: Create an RDS instance for a managed database environment.
o Connect with Oracle SQL Developer: Use Oracle SQL Developer for easy access and
management.
o Create Tables: Define tables either manually through the SQL Developer UI or by using SQL
Loader for bulk imports.
2. Connect RDS Instance to Glue:
o Glue Connection: Establish a Glue connection to the RDS instance to enable data access in
Glue scripts.
3. Transform Data in AWS Glue:
o ETL Processing: Utilize Glue scripts to perform data transformations on the RDS tables.
4. Redshift Connection in Glue:
o Create a connection to Redshift, allowing Glue to transfer and transform data efficiently.
5. Load Data into Redshift:
o Table Creation: Define necessary tables in Redshift.
o Data Load: Use COPY command for data import from S3 to Redshift or use Redshift Spectrum
to query data directly from S3, avoiding data duplication.
Redshift Boto3 Scenario:
Objective: Load data from S3 into Redshift using Boto3 and Python.
1. Create Redshift Client:
o Initialize the Redshift client using Boto3 to manage Redshift resources programmatically.
2. Create Redshift Cluster:
o Use the client to configure and deploy a Redshift cluster where the data will be loaded.
3. Make Redshift Connection Using psycopg:
o Database Connection: Import psycopg2 to establish a connection to the Redshift cluster.
o SQL Execution: Use cursor.execute to run SQL commands directly from the Python script,
such as creating tables or executing the COPY command to load data from S3.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PROJECT CONTENT
Input Files (Raw Data Files)
The raw data files are usually collected from various hospital departments, including patient records, billing,
laboratory results, etc. These files are stored in the S3 raw data bucket (/raw) and may be in formats like CSV,
JSON, XML, or Parquet.
1. Patient Information (patient_info.csv or patient_info.json):
o Contains demographic data about patients.
o Example columns: patient_id, name, dob, gender, address, contact_info, emergency_contact
2. Admissions and Discharges (admissions.csv):
o Tracks patient admissions and discharge dates.
o Example columns: patient_id, admission_date, discharge_date, admission_reason,
discharge_status
3. Billing and Payments (billing.csv):
o Holds data on billing, including amounts and payment methods.
o Example columns: patient_id, billing_date, amount, payment_method, insurance_provider
4. Medical Records / EHR (medical_records.json):
o Includes diagnosis, treatment details, and other medical information.
o Example columns: patient_id, visit_date, doctor_id, diagnosis, prescribed_medication
5. Laboratory Results (lab_results.csv):
o Contains test results and related information.
o Example columns: patient_id, test_type, test_date, result, normal_range, doctor_id
6. Pharmacy Records (pharmacy.csv):
 o Tracks medications dispensed to patients.
o Example columns: patient_id, medication_name, dispense_date, quantity, prescribing_doctor
7. Staff Information (staff_info.csv):
o Details about doctors, nurses, and other healthcare staff.
o Example columns: staff_id, name, role, department, contact_info

Processed Files (Output Data Files)

After the raw data files undergo transformations (cleaning, validation, enrichment, aggregation, etc.), they are
saved in processed files in the S3 processed bucket (/processed). The processed files are typically standardized,
clean, and ready for loading into a data warehouse or analytics system like Redshift.
1. Processed Patient Information (processed_patient_info.parquet):
o Cleaned and standardized patient demographics with unified schema.
o Example columns: patient_id, age, gender, address, contact_info
2. Admissions Summary (processed_admissions.parquet):
o Aggregated data showing admission and discharge information with calculated metrics.
o Example columns: patient_id, admission_date, discharge_date, length_of_stay,
admission_reason
3. Billing Summary (processed_billing.parquet):
o Contains billing details with anonymized patient information.
o Example columns: patient_id, billing_date, amount, insurance_coverage, final_cost
4. Medical History Summary (processed_medical_history.parquet):
o Consolidates EHR data by mapping diagnoses, treatments, and medical history into a single
record.
o Example columns: patient_id, visit_date, diagnosis, treatments, medications
5. Lab Results Summary (processed_lab_results.parquet):
o Cleaned and standardized lab results.
o Example columns: patient_id, test_type, test_date, result, result_status
6. Pharmacy Dispensing Summary (processed_pharmacy.parquet):
o Consolidates pharmacy records with standardized medication details.
o Example columns: patient_id, medication_name, dispense_date, quantity
7. Monthly Metrics (monthly_metrics.csv):
o Aggregated metrics data that shows trends over time.
o Example columns: month, total_admissions, average_length_of_stay, total_billing_amount,
top_diagnoses
8. Anonymized Dataset for Analysis (anonymized_data.parquet):
o A version of the consolidated dataset where sensitive information is masked or
pseudonymized for analytical purposes.

Final Output Data Files (Stored in Data Warehouse or S3 /output)

These files are often aggregated and structured for reporting and analytics purposes.
1. Hospital Performance Summary (hospital_performance.csv):
o Summarizes overall hospital metrics, including patient admission trends and resource
utilization.
2. Patient Visit Metrics (patient_visit_metrics.csv):
o Contains key metrics for each patient visit, such as visit duration and cost.
3. Disease Trends Report (disease_trends.csv):
o Aggregates diagnoses data to show trends in common diseases and treatments.
4. Monthly Financial Reports (financial_reports.csv):
o Summarizes monthly revenue, billing, and expenditure statistics.

This structure ensures a smooth flow from raw data ingestion to processed outputs ready for analytics. Each
file has a specific role, allowing easy traceability and efficient data processing in the HMS data pipeline.

End-to-End Automated Hospital Management System (HMS) Data Pipeline for AWS Data Engineer with
Experience
This project involves building an automated HMS data pipeline on AWS that handles the ingestion,
transformation, and loading of hospital data. The pipeline will use AWS services such as S3, Glue, Athena,
Redshift, Lambda, Airflow, and SNS for orchestration, monitoring, and notifications. As a 4-year experienced
AWS data engineer, you will focus on optimizing each step and ensuring the pipeline is robust, scalable, and
efficient.

1. Data Ingestion from Client Systems (Oracle, SAP) to AWS S3

In this step, raw patient data (from systems like Oracle or SAP) is ingested into AWS S3.
Ingestion Process
 Lambda Function: Create an AWS Lambda function that triggers the ingestion process when new data
is available. You can either pull data from external sources or let the client system push data to an S3
bucket.
 Source Data Formats: Data is typically uploaded as CSV, JSON, or Parquet from client systems.
Lambda Function for Data Upload:
python
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import boto3
import os

def lambda_handler(event, context):

# Initialize AWS clients
s3_client = boto3.client('s3')

# Define file path and S3 bucket

file_path = '/path/to/source/data.csv'
s3_bucket = 'hms-raw-data'
s3_key = 'raw/patient_data.csv'

# Upload the file to S3

s3_client.upload_file(file_path, s3_bucket, s3_key)
print(f"File {file_path} uploaded to s3://{s3_bucket}/{s3_key}")
 Trigger Lambda function via S3 Event Notification when new files are uploaded to a source location.

2. Data Transformation Using AWS Glue

AWS Glue will be used for data cleaning, standardization, and transformation into optimized formats like
Parquet.
Glue Crawler for Schema Discovery:
 A Glue Crawler is used to scan raw files stored in S3 and populate the Glue Data Catalog with schema
information.
Glue ETL Job for Transformation:
 PySpark scripts are written within Glue ETL jobs to clean and transform the raw data.
 Output is stored back in Parquet format in a different S3 directory for optimized querying.
Example PySpark Glue Job Script:
python
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import boto3
from pyspark.sql import SparkSession

spark = SparkSession.builder.appName('HMS_Transformation').getOrCreate()

# Load raw data from S3

df = spark.read.csv("s3://hms-raw-data/raw/patient_data.csv", header=True)

# Data Transformation: Filter, clean, and drop null values

df_cleaned = df.filter(df['age'] > 0).dropna()

# Save cleaned data to Parquet for optimized performance

df_cleaned.write.parquet("s3://hms-processed-data/patient_data_cleaned/")
 Schedule the Glue Job to run periodically using Glue triggers to handle regular updates.

3. Data Querying with Athena

After the transformation, you can run SQL queries on the transformed data stored in Parquet format using
Amazon Athena.
Example Athena Query:
sql
Copy code
SELECT patient_id, diagnosis, age
FROM "hms_data"
WHERE diagnosis = 'Flu' AND age > 40;
 Athena allows you to run fast, serverless queries on data stored in S3, eliminating the need for setting
up and managing an infrastructure.

4. Data Loading into Redshift

Now that the data is cleaned and queried, you’ll load it into Amazon Redshift for complex analytics and
reporting.
Glue Job for Data Loading into Redshift:
 Glue Job can be used to load transformed data from S3 into Redshift using JDBC.
 Schema: Define the appropriate schema and table structure in Redshift for storing patient data.
Example Glue Job for Redshift Load:
python
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df_cleaned.write.format("jdbc") \
.option("url", "jdbc:redshift://<redshift-cluster-endpoint>:5439/mydb") \
.option("dbtable", "patient_data") \
.option("user", "<user>").option("password", "<password>").save()
 Schedule this job using Glue triggers after each transformation or daily, depending on your pipeline
requirements.

5. Orchestration with Apache Airflow

Apache Airflow will be used to manage, schedule, and monitor the entire pipeline. Airflow will automate the
execution of each step: ingestion, transformation, and loading into Redshift.
Example Airflow DAG for Orchestration:
python
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from airflow import DAG
from airflow.providers.apache.spark.operators.spark_submit import SparkSubmitOperator
from airflow.providers.amazon.aws.transfers.s3_to_redshift import S3ToRedshiftOperator
from datetime import datetime

dag = DAG('hms_data_pipeline', start_date=datetime(2024, 1, 1), schedule_interval='@daily')

# Task 1: Run Spark Job for Data Transformation (PySpark)

spark_task = SparkSubmitOperator(
task_id='transform_data',
application='/path/to/your_pyspark_script.py',
conn_id='spark_default',
dag=dag
)

# Task 2: Load Data from S3 to Redshift

load_to_redshift_task = S3ToRedshiftOperator(
task_id='load_data_to_redshift',
schema='public',
 table='patient_data',
s3_bucket='hms-processed-data',
s3_key='patient_data_cleaned/',
copy_options=['CSV'],
aws_conn_id='aws_default',
redshift_conn_id='redshift_default',
dag=dag
)

# Define task dependencies

spark_task >> load_to_redshift_task
 Airflow DAG defines the entire pipeline, including dependencies and execution order.

6. Automation and Monitoring

You can trigger the entire ETL process automatically when new files arrive in S3, and you can set up monitoring
and alerting for any failures.
Lambda for Automation:
 Use AWS Lambda to trigger Glue ETL jobs when new data is uploaded to S3.
Lambda Function Example:
python
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import boto3

def lambda_handler(event, context):

glue = boto3.client('glue')

# Start Glue job

glue.start_job_run(JobName='hms_etl_job')

# Send SNS Notification

sns = boto3.client('sns')
sns.publish(TopicArn='<sns-topic-arn>', Message='Glue job triggered for data transformation')
 SNS Notifications: Notify the team upon successful execution or failure of the pipeline.

7. Data Security and Access Control

 IAM Roles: Define IAM roles for Glue, Lambda, Redshift, and other services to ensure least privileged
access.
 Encryption: Use KMS (Key Management Service) to encrypt data at rest (S3, Redshift) and in transit
(Glue, Redshift).
IAM Policy Example for Glue:
json
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{
"Version": "2012-10-17",
"Statement": [
{
"Effect": "Allow",
"Action": "glue:*",
"Resource": "*"
},
{
"Effect": "Allow",
"Action": "s3:GetObject",
"Resource": "arn:aws:s3:::hms-raw-data/*"
}
]
}
8. Data Visualization with QuickSight
Once the data is loaded into Redshift, use Amazon QuickSight for data visualization and reporting.
QuickSight Dashboards:
 Connect QuickSight to Redshift and create interactive dashboards to visualize patient trends,
diagnosis, and operational data.
Key Visualizations:
 Patient Trends: Visualize patient demographics and disease trends.
 Admissions Statistics: Monitor daily, weekly, or monthly hospital admissions.
 Diagnosis Reports: Show diagnoses based on various age groups and geographical regions.

Project Summary:
1. Data Ingestion: Use Lambda to upload patient data from Oracle/SAP to S3.
2. Data Transformation: Use AWS Glue (PySpark) to clean and standardize data.
3. Data Querying: Use Athena for SQL-based queries on transformed data in S3.
4. Data Loading: Load the transformed data into Redshift using Glue and JDBC.
5. Orchestration: Manage the entire pipeline using Airflow, including task dependencies and scheduling.
6. Automation & Monitoring: Automate tasks with Lambda triggers and use SNS for notifications.
7. Security: Ensure data security with IAM roles and KMS encryption.
8. Visualization: Create interactive dashboards in QuickSight for hospital management insights.

Practical Considerations:
 Performance Optimization: Regularly optimize Glue and EMR jobs to handle large volumes of data.
 Cost Optimization: Leverage S3 lifecycle policies to archive data and reduce storage costs.
 Scalability: Ensure that the pipeline can scale with growing data by partitioning datasets and
optimizing Redshift and Glue configurations.
This end-to-end automated pipeline streamlines the processing of hospital management data, making it
accessible for reporting and decision-making in real-time while ensuring data consistency, security, and
performance at scale.

Practical Implementation of Real-Time and Batch Processing in an HMS Data Pipeline

In a Hospital Management System (HMS) project, integrating both batch processing and real-time processing
ensures the system can efficiently handle both immediate events and long-term data analysis. Here's how each
transformation and action can be practically implemented:

Batch Processing in HMS Pipeline:

Batch processing typically handles periodic tasks like aggregation, historical analysis, and transformation of
data, usually on a daily or weekly basis.
1. Data Cleaning and Preprocessing:
 Removing Duplicates: In AWS Glue, we can perform deduplication of patient records, removing rows
with the same patient_id that may appear in multiple logs (for example, if the patient was admitted
multiple times but the data is not properly cleaned).
python
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df_dedup = df.dropDuplicates(['patient_id'])
 Handling Missing Values: For fields like age, diagnosis, and discharge_date, we fill in missing values
with a default or computed value. This ensures data completeness.
python
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df_cleaned = df.fillna({'age': df.agg({"age": "avg"}).first()[0], 'discharge_date': 'N/A'})
 Standardizing Formats: Convert the admission_date field to a consistent format (e.g., YYYY-MM-DD).
python
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df_cleaned = df.withColumn("admission_date", to_date(df["admission_date"], 'yyyy-MM-dd'))
  Data Type Casting: Ensure columns like age are of numeric type and patient_id is a string for
consistency.
python
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df_cleaned = df_cleaned.withColumn("age", df_cleaned["age"].cast("int"))
2. Data Standardization:
 Normalization: Ensure consistent values for categorical columns. For example, standardize gender
column values from "M/F" to "Male/Female".
python
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df_standardized = df_cleaned.withColumn("gender", when(df["gender"] == "M", "Male").otherwise("Female"))
 Text Parsing and Cleaning: Clean medical notes or standardize diagnoses (e.g., removing special
characters).
python
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df_cleaned = df_cleaned.withColumn("medical_notes", regexp_replace(df["medical_notes"], "[^a-zA-Z0-9 ]",
""))
3. Derived Metrics Calculation:
 Calculating Length of Stay: Use admission_date and discharge_date to compute the length of stay
(LOS).
python
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from pyspark.sql.functions import datediff
df_cleaned = df_cleaned.withColumn("length_of_stay", datediff(df_cleaned["discharge_date"],
df_cleaned["admission_date"]))
 Age Calculation: Calculate age based on date_of_birth and the current date.
python
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df_cleaned = df_cleaned.withColumn("age", datediff(current_date(), df_cleaned["date_of_birth"]) / 365)
 Diagnosis Frequency: Aggregate the diagnosis codes to understand the most common diagnoses.
python
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df_diagnosis = df_cleaned.groupBy("diagnosis").count().orderBy("count", ascending=False)
4. Data Anonymization:
 Masking PII: Anonymize sensitive information like patient names or IDs using hashing or encryption.
python
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from pyspark.sql.functions import sha2
df_anonymized = df_cleaned.withColumn("patient_id", sha2(df["patient_id"], 256))
5. Aggregation and Summarization:
 Monthly/Yearly Aggregates: Summarize patient counts, admissions, and average length of stay on a
monthly basis.
python
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df_monthly_summary = df_cleaned.groupBy("month(admission_date)").agg(
count("patient_id").alias("total_admissions"),
avg("length_of_stay").alias("average_length_of_stay")
)
 Cost and Revenue Analysis: Summarize hospital revenues by service type or department.
python
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df_revenue = df_cleaned.groupBy("department").agg(
sum("revenue").alias("total_revenue")
)
6. Writing to Data Warehouse (Redshift):
After applying transformations, the results are written into Amazon Redshift for long-term storage and
analytics.
python
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df_cleaned.write.format("jdbc").option("url", "jdbc:redshift://<cluster>:5439/hmsdb") \
.option("dbtable", "patient_data").option("user", "user").option("password", "password").save()

Real-Time Processing in HMS Pipeline:

Real-time processing allows us to handle immediate events, such as new patient admissions, critical lab results,
and emergency alerts.
1. Event Ingestion and Streaming:
 AWS Kinesis: Real-time events, such as patient admissions, are captured through AWS Kinesis
streams. These events are processed as they occur.
python
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import boto3
kinesis_client = boto3.client('kinesis', region_name='us-west-2')

# Push an event (e.g., new patient admission) to Kinesis

kinesis_client.put_record(
StreamName="hospital-stream",
Data=json.dumps(new_patient_data),
PartitionKey="partitionkey"
)
2. Real-Time Data Enrichment:
 Join with Reference Data: Real-time data is enriched by joining with static reference data, such as
doctor details.
python
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df_event = spark.read.json("kinesis://hospital-stream")
df_doctor = spark.read.parquet("s3://hms-reference-data/doctors/")
df_enriched = df_event.join(df_doctor, on="doctor_id")
 Adding Metadata: Enrich the events with additional information like the current timestamp for
accurate tracking.
python
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from pyspark.sql.functions import current_timestamp
df_enriched = df_enriched.withColumn("event_timestamp", current_timestamp())
3. Real-Time Transformations and Calculations:
 Admission/Discharge Alerts: Real-time processing triggers alerts based on critical conditions like a
patient's vital signs crossing a threshold.
python
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df_alerts = df_enriched.filter(df_enriched["blood_pressure"] > 180)
df_alerts.show()
 Real-Time Vital Signs Monitoring: Process patient vitals (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure) and apply
rules for anomaly detection.
python
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df_vitals = df_enriched.filter((df_enriched["heart_rate"] > 100) | (df_enriched["blood_pressure"] > 180))
4. Anomaly Detection:
 Outlier Detection: Monitor patient vitals or lab results for abnormalities using statistical methods or
machine learning.
python
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from pyspark.ml.stat import Summarizer
summary = df_vitals.select(Summarizer.metrics("mean", "stddev").summary(df_vitals["heart_rate"]))
5. Real-Time Data Quality Checks:
  Schema Validation: Ensure that incoming events are consistent with the expected schema (e.g., all
necessary fields are populated).
python
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from pyspark.sql.functions import lit
df_validated = df_enriched.filter(df_enriched["patient_id"].isNotNull())
6. Writing to Real-Time Database or Alerting System:
 Persisting Real-Time Data: Write processed data into a fast-access database such as DynamoDB.
python
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df_enriched.write.format("dynamodb").option("tableName", "patient_data_stream").save()
 Triggering Notifications: Use AWS SNS to send alerts for critical events (e.g., abnormal vitals or a new
emergency case).
python
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sns_client = boto3.client('sns', region_name='us-west-2')
sns_client.publish(TopicArn='arn:aws:sns:us-west-2:123456789012:emergency-alerts', Message="Critical event
detected")

Example Scenario Integrating Batch and Real-Time Processing:

In a practical HMS data pipeline, both batch and real-time processing work together to ensure timely alerts
and efficient long-term reporting.
1. Real-Time Data Stream:
o Kinesis streams patient admission events and patient vitals in real time.
o These events are processed by AWS Lambda or AWS Glue jobs and are enriched with
reference data (e.g., doctor details).
o Anomalies such as abnormal vital signs are detected and trigger immediate notifications to
staff via AWS SNS or email alerts.
2. Batch Aggregation and Reporting:
o A daily batch job via AWS Glue aggregates patient records to calculate metrics like average
length of stay, admissions by diagnosis, and hospital revenue.
o This data is written into Amazon Redshift for further analysis and can be visualized using
Amazon QuickSight.
=============================================================================

PySpark Basics
PySpark is the Python API for Apache Spark, enabling Python developers to interact with Spark for big data
processing.
Key Concepts
1. SparkContext (sc):
o The entry point to Spark functionality. It coordinates the execution of Spark jobs.
o Example: sc = SparkContext("local", "AppName")
2. RDD (Resilient Distributed Dataset):
o A fundamental data structure of Spark that is immutable and distributed.
o Operations: map(), filter(), reduce(), collect(), count(), take().
o Transformation: Lazy evaluation (i.e., the computation doesn’t happen until an action is
triggered).
o Example: rdd = sc.parallelize([1, 2, 3])
3. DataFrame:
o A distributed collection of data organized into named columns (similar to a table in a
relational database).
o More optimized than RDDs and easier to work with for most data engineering tasks.
o Example: df = spark.read.csv("s3://path/to/data.csv")
4. Dataset:
o A distributed collection of data, similar to DataFrame, but strongly typed and provides
compile-time type safety.
 5. SparkSession:
o The unified entry point to read data, process it, and perform other tasks.
o Example: spark = SparkSession.builder.appName("MyApp").getOrCreate()

Common PySpark Operations

 Transformations (Lazy):
o map(), flatMap(), filter(), groupBy(), reduceByKey(), join(), distinct(), union().
 Actions (Trigger Computation):
o collect(), count(), take(), first(), saveAsTextFile(), show().
 Aggregation Functions:
o sum(), avg(), max(), min(), count(), groupBy().
 DataFrame Operations:
o df.select(), df.filter(), df.groupBy(), df.show(), df.printSchema(), df.write() (to write to a data
sink).
 Window Functions:
o Used for processing time-based or grouped data.
o Example: df.withColumn("row_num", row_number().over(windowSpec))

Major Points for AWS Data Engineers

 AWS Integration with PySpark:
o PySpark integrates well with AWS services like S3 (for storage), EMR (for big data processing),
Glue (for ETL), Redshift (for data warehousing), and RDS (for relational databases).
 AWS EMR:
o Managed Hadoop and Spark service for running PySpark jobs at scale.
o Use Case: Running distributed PySpark jobs on large datasets stored in S3.
 S3:
o Use S3 for data storage and access in your PySpark jobs.
o Example: spark.read.csv("s3://my-bucket/data.csv")
 AWS Glue:
o Use AWS Glue to automate ETL jobs. Glue provides a managed environment for running
PySpark code.
o Glue offers automatic schema detection, making it easier to read data in various formats like
CSV, JSON, and Parquet from S3.
 AWS Redshift Integration:
o Use PySpark to read from or write to Redshift through JDBC or AWS Data Wrangler for
efficient large-scale data processing.

PySpark Architecture
1. Driver Program:
o The main entry point of Spark. It runs the user’s Spark job, distributes tasks to worker nodes,
and handles the results.
o It’s where the SparkSession is created.
2. Cluster Manager:
o Manages the resources in the cluster. Examples: YARN, Mesos, or Kubernetes.
o Decides how to distribute the tasks across worker nodes.
3. Executor:
o Runs the individual tasks and stores the data in memory or disk as part of the computation.
o Multiple executors are distributed across the cluster.
4. Worker Nodes:
o These are the machines that execute the actual tasks.
o Each worker runs an executor that manages tasks for one job.
5. Task Scheduler:
o Responsible for scheduling tasks on executors.
o Tasks are broken down into smaller stages (e.g., map, reduce) and scheduled.
How PySpark Works Initialization:
A SparkSession is created to start a PySpark job. This is the entry point for interacting with Spark.
1. Data Loading:
o Data can be loaded from various sources, e.g., S3, Redshift, RDS, or even a local file system.
Spark can handle large-scale datasets in parquet, csv, json, etc.
o Example: df = spark.read.parquet("s3://my-bucket/data")
2. Transformations:
o Transformations are lazily evaluated, meaning Spark won’t execute them until an action is
triggered. Common transformations include map(), filter(), join(), and groupBy().
o These operations are applied in parallel across the distributed dataset.
3. Actions:
o Actions such as collect(), show(), and count() trigger the execution of the transformations
applied to the dataset.
4. Execution Plan:
o Spark constructs a DAG (Directed Acyclic Graph) of stages based on the transformations
applied.
o The DAG Scheduler breaks this plan into smaller stages and assigns them to workers for
execution.
5. Results:
o The results are either stored in a data store like Redshift, S3, or returned to the driver if the
data is small enough.

Best Practices for PySpark on AWS

1. Memory Management:
o Tune the executor memory (spark.executor.memory) to ensure enough memory is available
for processing large datasets.
o Use broadcast variables to minimize data shuffling.
2. Data Partitioning:
o Partition large datasets based on a column (e.g., patient_id, date) to optimize processing.
o Example: df.repartition(10) (for 10 partitions).
3. Parallelism:
o Set the number of partitions or tasks for parallelism using spark.sql.shuffle.partitions for
distributed operations like joins.
4. Avoid Shuffling:
o Shuffling is an expensive operation, and minimizing it can significantly improve performance.
For instance, using join() with properly partitioned data reduces shuffle.
5. Caching:
o Cache intermediate data that will be reused multiple times during computations using
df.cache() or df.persist().
6. Data Formats:
o Use Parquet for optimized performance with Spark as it is columnar and supports predicate
pushdown.

Example PySpark Code for AWS Data Engineer

python
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from pyspark.sql import SparkSession

# Initialize Spark session

spark = SparkSession.builder.appName("AWS-Data-Engineer").getOrCreate()

# Load data from S3

df = spark.read.csv("s3://my-bucket/data.csv", header=True, inferSchema=True)

# Data transformation: filter records and group by a column

filtered_df = df.filter(df['age'] > 30)
grouped_df = filtered_df.groupBy('gender').agg({'salary': 'avg'})

# Write the results to S3 in Parquet format

grouped_df.write.parquet("s3://my-bucket/processed_data/")

# Show the result

grouped_df.show()

Conclusion
 PySpark is a powerful tool for data engineering, especially in distributed environments like AWS.
 Key components like S3, EMR, and Glue make it easy to process, store, and move large-scale data.
 The combination of RDDs, DataFrames, and DAG execution provides scalability and efficiency for large
datasets.
In PySpark, both cache() and persist() are used to store intermediate results in memory or on disk to speed up
operations that reuse the same dataset. They help avoid recomputation, particularly in iterative or repetitive
processes. While similar, they have some important differences in terms of flexibility and control over storage
levels.
1. cache()
 Definition: cache() is a shorthand method that stores the data in memory only by default.
 Storage Level: By default, cache() uses MEMORY_ONLY, meaning it keeps the dataset in memory
without any backup on disk.
 Use Case: Use cache() when the dataset can fit in memory and you don’t need custom storage levels.
Example:
python
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df = spark.read.csv("s3://my-bucket/data.csv")
df.cache() # Caches the DataFrame in memory only
df.count() # Trigger an action to load data into memory
 Pros: Quick and simple for storing datasets that fit entirely in memory.
 Cons: Limited to memory; if the dataset is too large, some data may be evicted, and recomputation
will be required.
2. persist()
 Definition: persist() provides control over storage levels, allowing the dataset to be stored in memory,
on disk, or a combination.
 Storage Levels: Offers various options beyond MEMORY_ONLY, such as:
o MEMORY_ONLY: Stores data in memory; if it doesn’t fit, some data is recomputed.
o MEMORY_AND_DISK: Stores data in memory; spills to disk if there’s insufficient memory.
o DISK_ONLY: Stores data only on disk.
o MEMORY_ONLY_SER (serialized): Stores data in a serialized format to save memory.
o MEMORY_AND_DISK_SER (serialized): Serializes data, storing it in memory or spilling it to
disk as needed.
 Use Case: Use persist() when you need specific storage control or have a dataset too large for memory
alone.
Example:
python
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df = spark.read.csv("s3://my-bucket/data.csv")
df.persist(storageLevel=pyspark.StorageLevel.MEMORY_AND_DISK) # Custom storage level
df.count() # Trigger an action to load data into cache or persist
 Pros: Greater flexibility with storage level options; can handle larger datasets by spilling to disk.
 Cons: A bit more complex and may require more memory/disk tuning.
Key Differences Summary
Feature cache() persist()
Storage Level MEMORY_ONLY (default) Customizable (e.g., MEMORY_AND_DISK)
Memory Usage Only in memory Memory and/or disk
Flexibility Less flexible More flexible
Feature cache() persist()
Use Case Simple caching in memory Large datasets, custom storage levels
When to Use Which
 Use cache() for datasets that easily fit in memory and don’t need disk backup.
 Use persist() if the dataset is too large for memory or requires specific storage handling, as in long-
running jobs or iterative processes.
Both methods significantly improve performance by avoiding recomputation, and choosing between them
depends on the dataset size and resource constraints.