EXPERIMENT-31

Lobjective RHS
the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for different angles
incidence, Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, angle of emergence and interpr
the result
LMaterials Required RHS
Drawing board, sheet of white paper, drawing pins, glass slab, alpins, protractor, scale and pencil
Jheory RHS
When a ray of light travelling in one medium enters another medium obliquely, the direction of
travelling path gets changed, i.e., it deviates from its original path. This deviation in the path
light ray at the boundary of two optical media is termed as refraction of light.
Laws of Refraction: There are two laws of refraction of light:
" First Law of Refraction: The ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle
refraction for a given pair of media is always the same.
sin i
That is, sin r
Here, i =angle of incidence
r = angle of refraction
= aconstant (called the refractive index of the second medu
with respect to the first medium)
sin i
The relation - is known as Snell's Law.
sin r

Second Law of Refraction: The incident ray, the refracted ray and Ai

the normal at the point of incidence lie in the same plane. Gass
The change in the direction of light rays is due to change in the speed
of light while entering from one medium to the other.
When aray of light travelling in air (rarer medium) enters a
rectangular glass slab (denser medium), it bends towards the normal
at the surface of air glass boundary. In the given figure, AO is the T
incident ray, 00 is refracted ray and O'B is
AON (marked as D is angle of incidence, angleemergent
MOO'
ray. Angle
(Z) is angle
of refraction and angle M'OB is angle of M
emergence (Ze), NOM
normal at the point of incidence while N'OM is normal at the point is light
of s a
RefractionBlass
of emergence. When the refracted ray 00 strikes the surface SR at Fig. 13.1 rectangular
through a
 thejunction of glass and air, it again undergoes refraction. This time, as the ray of light moves
glass(denser medium) to air (rarer
from OR medium), it bends away from the
normal and comes out
emergent ray
as that:
isclear
Here,it incidence
Angle of (ZD is equal to angle of
Emergent ray (0'B) is parallel to incident emergence (Ze).
ray (AO) but it is
laterally displaced by some distance.
P
Procedure X
&Take a drawing board and fix a sheet of white paper on it with
the help of drawing pins.
Air

" Placea reectangular glass slab in the middle of the paper and make Glass
its boundary ABCD by using a sharp pencil.
Remove the glass slab and mark a point Oon the face
AB and
draw a line XO inclined at an angle between 30° and 60°.
Replacethe glass slab exactly over its boundary marked on the
paper. D
FIx wo alpins P and P2 vertically on the line XO keeping them
apart by about 5 Cm.
Now observe the images of alpins P; and P2 through the face DC
f the glass slab. While doing so, fix twO more pins P3
and P4 such
that all the pins appear to be in a straight line.
Fig. 17.2 Verifying the laws of
Remove the glass slab and all the pins. Mark the position of pins refraction
and Pa.
&Draw a line joining points P3 and P4 and extend it to O'
ABCD.
where it meets the face DC of the rectang
" Join the points 00' by drawing a line.
Draw a normal NOM to the face AB at point O and another
Oas shown in the figure. normal NOM to the face DC at po
Measure the angle of incidence XON, angle of refraction MO0 and
the help of a angle of emergence MOY w
protractor.
Kepeat the same procedure for two or three more values of the angle of
easure between 30° and 60°), Record the values of i, Lr, and Ze in the incidence (keeping
observation table.
doservat
SNo.
ion
Angle of ncidence Angle of Refraction Angle of Emergence Deviation
1 (4e) (42e)
2
30 30
3
45 430
35" 60

Kanclusion
passage of light rays through glass slab follows the laws of refraction.
When aray of light travels into glass from air, it gets deviated towards the normal.
The angle of
The angle of the angle of refraction (Zr).
incidence (Zi) is greater than
incidence (Z) and the angle of emergence (Ze) are equal.
REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH GLASS SLAB
 parallel to the incident ray, i.e., the direction of emergent ray is same a,
* The emergent ray is laterally displaced.
of incident ray, but emergent ray is with an increase in the angle of incidence (Zi).
increases
* The angle of refraction (er)
LfecautionsRHS on the drawing board.
The sheet of white paper should be fixed firmly carefully with a sharp pencil.
" The boundary of glass slab should be drawn gap of 4-5 cm between them.
The pins should be fixed vertically keeping a observed through the glass slab.
The feet of all pins should lie on a straight line when
the help of a sharp pencil.
" The position of pins should be marked carefully with

VIVA VOCE
1. What is refraction of light?
Ans. The bending of light from its path at the junction of two optical media is called refraction of light.
2. What happens when a light ray travels from a rarer medium to a denser medium?
Ans. When a ray of light travels from a rarer to a denser medium, its speed becomes slow and it bends towards
the normal.
3. What happens when a ray of light travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium?
Ans. When aray of light travels from adenser medium to a rarer medium, its speed becomes fast and it bends
away from the normal.
sin i
4. What is the relation = utermed as?
sin r
sin i
Ans. = u is termed as Snell's law.
sin r

5. What is u in the above expression?

Ans. u is the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first medium.
6. How are angle of incidence (Zi) and angle of emergence (Ze) related to each
other?
Ans. The angle of incidence (Zi) is equal to the angle of emergence (e) for a
given pair of optical media.
7. What is the relationship between incident ray and
emergent ray?
Ans. The emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray but it is
8. What does the lateral
laterally displaced from the incident ray.
displacement depend on?
Ans. The lateral displacerment depends on the thickness of glass
to the thickness of glass slab. slab. Lateral displacement is directly proportiona
9. How will a ray of light be
affected if it enters the
Ans. A ray of light entering normally into the glass slab glass slab normally?
straight line path. It is because the angle of will not show deviation (bending) and it will
of refraction will also be incidence is zero for a ray entering move in
zero. normally and hence ang

PRACTICAL SKILL-BASED SHORT ANSWER

1. Why does a ray of light
bend QUESTIONS
the ray bend away from the towards the normal when it enters from air into a glass
Ans. As glass is an optically normal when it emerges out into air? slab? Why d°e
denser
travelling with lesser speed, themedium
light
than air, the speed of light in
ray bends towards the glass is less than that in atr.
glass slab in shorter time by normal so as to cover the thickness of the
following
When light emerges into air, the the shortest path.
speed
direction by bending away from the normal. of light is more in air and hence, light
ray regains lts O
54 PRISTINE SCIENCE LAB
 EXPERIMENT- E 2
djective RHs
Todetermine the focal length of a concave mirror by obtaining the image of a distant object
Materials Required KHS
Table, concave m
mirror, mirror holder, screen fixed on a stand and metre scale

JHeoryRHS
The rays of light coming from a distant object such as the sun or a distant tree or pole are
considered to be parallel to each other.
The parallel rays of light falling on a concave M M
mirror along its axis (XCFP), meet at its focus
after reflection. T
" The rays of light coming from a distant object X
form a real, inverted and very small image of C

the object at the focus of the mirror.

* Areal image can be obtained on a screen. N N
The distance between the pole (P) and the Light rays parallel to
focus (F) of the mirror is the focal length of Light rays not parallel
the mirror. the principal axis to the principal axis
Thus, focal length of a concave mirror can be Fig. 11.1 Image formation of a distant object
by a concave mirror
calculated by obtaining a real image of a distant
object at its focus. M

ProcedureX
Rays from a
distant tree
Fix a concave mirror in a mirror holder and place it on
Principal
the table in front of an open window facing a distant axis
object, say, a tree.
Take a Screen fixed on a stand and place it on the table
in front of the
mirror.
Move the screen towards or away from the concave M
mirror until a sharp and inverted image of the distant LHS
object is obtained on it.
Measure the horizontal distance between the centres
of mirror holder and the screen stand with the help of
metre scale.
" Note the value in the observation table. This distance is Fig. 11.2 Determining the focal length of
the focal length of the given Concave mirror. a concave mirror
 taking at least two different distant objects.
$$ Repeat the same
Note down readings inbythe observation table and find the mean value of the focal length.
your procedure

observations HS
Distance between mirror Focal length () of
S. No. Name of the
and screen (PF) mirror (m)
distant object
(cm) (m)
D. 2 -D.2
1.
0.198 -0.19e
2. Bulduy O-202 -Os 202
3.

Mean value of focal length 2

tonclusion RHS
The focal length of the given concave mirror is -0.2 m.

Precautions RHS
There should not be any obstacle in the path of light rays coming from distant object.
oThe mirror and the screen should be vertical in position.
"The mirror and the screen should be moved very carefully so that they do not fall down.
The distance between the mirror and the screen should be noted precisely.
" One should not take the sun as adistant object because the sunrays focused at a point can bun
the paper screen.
In order to obtain a sharp image, the object must be well illuminated.

VIVA VOCE
1. What is a mirror?
Ans. A mirror is any surface that reflects most of the light falling on it.
2. What is a concave miror?
Ans. Concave mirror isa spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is formed by the interior surface of a spher
3. What do you understand by reflection?
Ans. The phenomenon of bouncing back of light after falling on a smooth and shiny surface is known a
reflection.
4. What are the aws of reflection?
Ans. There are two laws of reflection:
(a) The first law of reflection states that the angle of incidence (0 is always equal to the ange
reflection (n.
(b) The second law of reflection states that the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the P
of incidence lie in the same plane.
5. What are two types of reflection?
Ans. The two types of reflection are regular reflection and irregular or
6. What is the principal focus of a concave mirror?
diffused reflection.
Ans. The point on the principal axis of a concave mirror where all the rays coming from infinity m
meetafte
reflection from the mirror is called the principal focus.
7. What do you mean by the focal length of a
concave mirror?
Ans. The distance between principal focus and the pole of a concave mirror is known as itsfocal length.

44 PRISTINE SCIENCE LAB MANUAL-10

 EXPERIMENT-2A) 2

Lobjective AHS
determine the focal length of a convex lens by obtaining the image of a distant object
To
Materials Required Ru
Table, lens holder, convex lens, screen fixed on a stand and metre scale
fheory RHS
o Thelight rays coming from a distant object such as the sun or a distant tree or pole are considered
to be parallel to each other.
* The parallel rays of light faling on a convex lens along its principal axis, after refraction, converg
at the principal focus on the other side of the lens.
* Aray of light passing through theprincipal focus of a convex lens, becomes parallel to the principa
axis after refraction.
* Aray of light passing through the optical centre of a convex lens does not suffer any deviation.
* The rays of light coming from a distant object form areal, inverted and very small image of the
object at the focus of the lens.
$ A real image can be obtained on a screen.
* The distance between the optical centre O and focus F or F2 is called the focal length of the lens.
Thus, the focal length of a convex lens can be calculated by obtaining a real image of a distant object
at its focus.

2F O 2F

ta) Light rays parallel to the principal axis o Light rays not parallel to the principal axis
Fig. 16.1 Image formation of a distant object by a
convex lens
Procedure X
& Fix aconvéx lèns in a lens holder and
place it on the table near an open window facing a d
object, say, a tree.
Take ascreen fixed on a stand and place it on the
table on the other side of the lens.
* Move the screen towards or away from the lens until a sharp and inverted image is Obtainedonit
 Measure the hoorizontal
distance Rays from a
between the centres of wih
lens distant tree
sCreen stand
bolder and the
metre scale.
the help of the observation
Principal
Notethe value in axis
the focal
able. This distance is
convex lens.
length of the given
Repeat the same procedure by
different
taking at least two
distant objects.
readings in the
&Note down your
observation table and find the
mean value of the focal
length.
Fig. 12.2 Determining the focal length of a convex lens
Observations RHS
S. No. Name of the Distance between mirror Focal length () of
distant object and screen (0F) mirror (m)
(cm) (m)
1.
2. Buildig 16.4
+0-18
3.

t018I
Mean value of focal length - m

eonclusion RHS
TO" (81 m.
The focal length of the given convex lens is
Mecautions RHS
light rays coming from distant object.
*There should not be any obstacle in the path of
position.
* The lens and the screen should be vertical in
very carefully so that they do not fall down.
The lens and the screen should be moved
should be noted precisely.
The distance between the lens and the screen because the sunrays focused at a point can burn
sun as a distant object
One should not take the
the paper screen.
obtain asharp image., the object must be well illuminated.
u order to
EXPERIMENT-12(B)

Objective
To object distances in case of a convex
distance for varying nature of image formed
lens and draw
find the image the
diagrams to show
corresponding ray
Materials Required screen fixed on a stand, metre
scale and
candle holder,
Table, convex smallcandle,
lens, lens holder,
matchboX
IMAGE FORMATION BY CONVEX LENS 47
FOCALLENGTH AND
 EXPERIMENT-5 4

Obfective RHS
on the current (I) passing
To study the dependence of the potential difference (V) across a resistorand
through it and determine its resistance. Also plot a graph between V I

Materials Required RYS

An unknown resistance, DC ammeter (0-3A), DC voltmeter, (0-3V), rheostat, connecting wires, dry cel
or battery and key
Jheory RHS
Ohm's law states that at constant temperature, the current () flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential (V) applied across it.
Mathemaically,
Ioc V or Vo« I

or V= RI
here, R is the resistance of the conductor
When potential (V) increases, the current () flowing through the conductor also increases but the
V
ratio V: I or remains constant, i.e., = R Fr

On plotting a graph between potential difference (V) and current (/), a straight line passing through flo
en
the origin is obtained.
Procedure
X
Make a circuit by arranging various components as shown in the circuit diagramin Fig. 5.1. X
" Connect the electrical components with the help of connecting wires.
" Connect the voltmeter in parallel with the resistance wire.
o Connect the ammeter in series with the resistance wire.
"Close the key by inserting aplug in its hole.
* Adjust the rheostat to vary the amount of current in the circuit.
* Note down the readings of ammeter and voltmeter in a tabular form.
Also note down the least count of both ammeter and voltmeter.
Take five sets of readings.
CircuitDiagram:
Cell Key

Rheostat

Resistor

Ammeter Voltmeter

Fig. 5.1 Circuit diagram for an electrical circuit to study the dependence
of current () on potential difference (V)

Hservations and Calculations

Least count of ammeter
0-6 A

Least count of voltmeter =

Reading of Ammeter Reading of Voltmeter =R (ohm)
S. No.
I(ampere) V
(volt)
2X 005 2
1
5 Xo05 2.5
2
3. 9 X0.o5 6X0.05
4
4X o.05
5X O.05 9x 0.05 5
5
R= g04
Mean value of ohm

Cohclusion RHS
From the above calculations, it is concluded that always remains constant. Hence, the current (I)
difference (V) applied across its
flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
ends. Y

Braph between Vand IAMS n guabhelet

and the
Plot a graph taking the values of Ion X-axis
values of V on Y-axis.
Join all the points and extend the joining line up to
origin Oof the graph. A slopy straight line is obtained.
ACalculate the slope of the straight line. It is equal to Slope = Resistance (R)
the resistance of the resistor.
XThat is,
Resistance of the resistor (R) = ohm
Prelautions RHS X

* All connections should be tight. Ourrent-(A famperes)

* Open ends of connecting wires should be cleaned with
a sandpaper. Fig. 5.2 Agraph between potential
difference (V) and current (/)

ELECTRICITY ANDITS EFFECTS(OHM'S LAW) 23

+Scala
 connected to the
The positive terminals of voltmeter and ammeter should be positive
cell or battery.
The current should be passed for a short period only, just as long as the reading is taken
Amount of current should be varied with the help of a rheostat.