1 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The experimental results can be divided into two types

( i ) Recorded value results.
( ii ) Calculated value results.

1. RECORDED VALUE RESULTS.

Recorded value results are results that measured and recorded during the experiment.
In order to plot a graph reasonable accuracy, the least number of readings needed are five for
a straight line graph. Extra readings should be taken for a curve. Also readings should be evenly
spaced (altered in regular steps) over the range required.
Recorded value results are given in a form of table of values.
EXAM PLE:
In simple pendulum experiment, recorded value results are the measured length of a pendulum (l)
and the time of oscillation.

L (cm) Time t (sec)

60 34.23
50 30.64
40 28.73
30 25.42
20 22.44

2. CALCULATED VALUE RESULTS.

Calculated value results are results that calculated or derived from the recorded results.
Calculated value obtained by calculation from a given formula.
Example:
In simple pendulum experiment, the value of gravitation acceleration, g may be calculated from
a given equation

T= 2  L
g

GRAPH OF AN EXPERIMENT.
A graph of an experiment drawn from recorded results.
The aims of plotting the graph are;
( I ) To show any general connection between the two quantities plotted.
( ii ) To provide the way of finding the best estimate of true connection of quantities.
( iii ) To produce a means of averaging the results.

TYPES OF GRAPH.
The main types of graph plotted are ( i ) straight line graph,
(ii ) A curve.

1
 1. ASTRAIGHT-LINE GRAPH.
A straight line graph has general equation y = mx + c where y and x are dependent
variable and independent variable respectively, m is a slope ( gradient ) of a graph and c
is the y-intercept of the graph.

y y
y

a) b) x c) x
x
y
y

e)
d) x x

Since y = mx + c then the relation ship between y and x is given as y = mx + c.

2 A CURVE.
1
y (i)y=k
x
y = x -1

1
a) x ( ii ) y = k
x2
y = k (x) 2

( iii ) y = kx  n

( i ) y = kx 2

( ii ) y = kx 3

b) x ( iii ) y = kx n

y
13
(i)y=k x ( ii ) y = kx
1 1
2 n
y = kx y = kx
c) x 2
General equation of a curve ;

Let the Index (exponent) be any value n, the general equation of a curve is

y = kx n
Where k is constant of proportionality of quantities y and x, n is any integer.
It is usual to find some method by which a straight line can be plotted to have the slope and
intercepts in order to have physical significance meaning.
The usual method is to take the logarithms in both sides.
Y = kx n
Log y = log (kx n )
Log y = log k + n log x
Since the variables are x and y .Then
Log y = n log x + log k
Compare with y = mx + c.
It is seems that a graph of log y against log x should be straight line with gradient n and intercept
log k on the vertical axis (log y).

HINTS IN PLOTTING A GRAPH.

The following are hints when drawing or plotting a graph.
1. TITLE OR HEADING.
Write a title or heading in Ink and capital letter.
Example.
(i) THE GRAPH of Sin i AGAINST Sin r.
(ii) THE GRAPH of T 2 AGAINST l.
2. SCALE.
Choose a simple scale divisions (using one ,two, five or ten divisions).
Example.
Horizontal scale; 1cm : 5 sec or
1cm represents 5 sec.
Don’t WRITE as 1cm = 5cm.
Vertical scale , 1cm:10cm or
1cm represents 10cm.
NOTE: In choosing the scale , make sure that you choose appropriate scale so that the drawing
(graph) must be large enough to fill the space.

3. AXIS.
(i ) Draw the axis in pencil’
(ii ) label the axis in ink ,showing the quantity (values) and their units.
(iii) Mark the axis in ink.
The number marked should be ≥100 (rather than using 0.001 it will be 1.0 x 10 3 ).

Example:
3
F/N
8

1 2 3 x 10 2 l/cm
NOTE:
Instead of F/N may be used F(N).
4. POINTS
Plot the points in pencil using a dot in side a circle or cross + in the position of the
point. Since reading may have an error .Not good practice to use a single dot (.) or x
NOTE; We use “+ ’’ because the graph axis are in vertical (1) and horizontal (-) so that error
are either in measuring variable y or x.
5. IN DRWAWING.
(i) When drawing a straight line. Use a transparent ruler through clear points. For
points which diverged from clear line, are left up and down the line in the
approximately equal space.

NOTE.
Often extrapolation needed to be done to project the line until it cuts the axis.
Example
F/N SCALE
Horizontal; 1cm:0.5cm
. Vertical: 1cm:10sec 2

L(cm).

(ii) When a smooth curve is drawn, use free hand ,always have your hand in the
concave side of the curve.

4
EXAMPLE OF THE GRAPH

T2
(sec 2 )
50 SCALE
HORIZONTAL 1cm: 0.5cm
2
40 . VERTICAL 1cm: 10sec
30

20

10

10 20 30 40 50 L(cm)

NOTE:
i).In order to plot a graph of reasonable accuracy ,the least number of readings needed are five
for straight line graph. Extra reading should be taken for a curve .
ii)Reading should be evenly spaced over the range required (altered in regular steps).

USES OF GRAPH:
The shape of the graph gives the physical relation of quantities. The straight line graph gives the
directly proportional between the two quantities.
The curve gives inversely proportional of quantities.

1. SLOPE (GRADIENT).
Since slope (m) = Vertical increase
Horizontal increase.
The slope shows the way in which one variable changes relative to another.
The slope of a graph often has a physical significance.

NOTE:
(i) In finding the slope of a graph , always use the largest convenient length of straight
line,so that percentage error is reduced to small value as possible.
(ii) Remember to give the units of gradients.
Example:
In velocity-time graph

5
THE GRAPH OF VELOCITY (V) AGAINST TIME (t)

V (m/s)

18

6 t

2 8 t(s)
Slope (M) = V
t

= (18 – 6) m/s 2
(8 – 2) sec
= 2m/s 2

Since a = . V
t

Then the physical significance of the slope in velocity time graph is acceleration (a).
NOTE: Use the units to obtain the physical significance (correct physical meaning).

2. INTERCEPT:
The Intercept often has a physical significance.
(I) Far the graph perhaps should go through the origin but does not do so, an
Intercept could indicate a zero error in one of the instruments used.
Example in simple pendulum experiment intercept means a zero error in
either stop watch or a meter ruler.

(ii) For a graph of equation which has intercept for example in a graph of
Length against Force (in extension of a spring).
L = mF + a if F = 0
L=a
The the physical significance of intercept “a” is the length of spring with
With no load. L (cm)

a F(N)

6
 3. EXTRAPOLATION AND INTERPOLATION.
Extrapolation is the projection of the graph to lower and higher values
Extrapolation enables to find the value of one quantity from the graph if the value of
the other quantity is not of the range of date collected.

y1

x1

If x1 is given then y1 can be determined from the gram graph .

Interpolation is to determine the value of one quantity from the graph if the value of other
quantity is with in the range of given data.
Example:
In a graph of angle of deviation D against angle of incidence (i).
The minimum angle of deviation (Dm) may be obtained by interpolation.

D
(Degrees)

Dm

i=e i (degrees)

4. AREA UNDER THE CURVE.

The area under the curve often has a physical significance .
Use the scale values and units to obtain the physical significance of area under the
curve.
Example (i)
The graph of Velocity against time ;

V
(m/s)
Area(A) = 1 2 (a  b)h
= 1 2 (a  b)m / s  h(s)
h t(sec) = Vt(m)

The physical significance of area in Velocity – time graph is total distance traveled

7
(ii) In discharging of capacitor. Area under the graph of current (I) against time ( t )
A= I ( A ) x t(s)
= It (As)
But It = charge Q.

The physical significance of area under area the graph of current against time in
discharging the capacitor is the total charge Q in coulomb which has flowed.

8
 2. EXPERIMENT ON ELASTICITY
Experiment on the elasticity concerning to:
1. Verification of Hooke’s law
(i) To determine force constant (coefficient of stiffness) of elastic string (or
rubber strip) or spiral spring.
(ii) To fin d unknown mass or weight of a given load.
2. To determine young modulus of elasticity for a given strip or metre ruler.
HOOKE’S LAW.
Hooke’s law states that,
“The extension is directly proportional to the tension (force applied)provided that elastic limit
does not be exceeded.”
L1 e

F
L2

F is Force applied .
L1 is original Length
L2 is a new length
e is extension (elongation)
e = L2 – L1

F e
F
F = Ke =K
e

F1 F2
Then 
e1 e2

Where the constant K is called Force constant or coefficient of stiffness.

GRAPH
When Hooke’s law is obeyed the graph of force (F) against extension (e) is drawn. The graph is
a straight line . Passing through the origin.
The physical significance of the slope is the force constant (coefficient of stiffness).

F(N)

∆F

∆e
e(cm)

22
The slope (s) = ∆F
∆e
Since F = ke F =k
e
Then slope (s) = k

From the graph if the extension of unknown mass or weight was measured ,the unknown weight
of a given load will be found by interpolation or extrapolation.

F(N)

F*

e* e(cm)
e * is measured extension of unknown mass of the object. Then unknown force is F * .
Since masses are free suspended vertically then F = mg . Then Unknown weight W = F *
F
Unknown mass m= *
g
YOUNG MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (E)
Young modulus of elasticity (E) can be defined as

stress
E= .
strain
Where Stress = F/A
A is cross section area of a material
Strain = e/l1

l1 e

A
F e
Then E = 
A l1

Fl1
E= But A = breadth  thickness.
Ae
A = bt
23
 Fl1
E=
bte
If the graph drawn is a graph of force against extension.
Fl
E= 1
bte

Ebt
F= e
l1
F Ebt
But =  Slope(s) Then slope (s) =
e l1

Slope( s )l1
E=
bt
Sl
E= 1
bt

Since F/e = Force Constant k.

S = k.

Ebt
k=
l1

kl1
E =
bt

SOURCE OF ERRORS AND THEIR PRECAUTIONS

1. parallax error
Parallax error in measuring the length.
Precaution.
To take careful observation in viewing the mark on the scale.
2. Error due to improper calibration of a scale in a meter rule.
3. Error due to improper weight /mass of masses
Precaution
To . use proper mass or weight of masses.
4. Error due to thickness of the pointer
Precaution.
To use a thinner pointer (very thin as possible of a pointer).
5. Mechanical vibration.
Error due to mechanical vibration of a system.
Precaution.
(i) To put a mass /weight gently in a pan or to suspend the system gently.
(ii) To avoid wind. 24
 EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
1. SIMPLE PENDULUM EXPERIMENTS.
A simple pendulum is made by a small metal ball (eg brass, iron etc) called a bob
pendulum bob, suspended on a string so that the center of gravity will be at the end .
When a pendulum is displaced gently through a small angle  , and released it oscillate
(to and fro).the oscillation is due to the restoring force caused by the gravity.

l is the length of pendulum (the distance from a

Point of suspension to the centre of a bob, where
A centre of gravity is located)

l

w
If the time for a given number of Oscillation is t , the period (time for one oscillation) will be T.
t
T= where n is number of oscillations for the time t.
n

GRAPHS
The graph depends on the given equation of the motion of a pendulum. Often graph is a straight
line passing through the origin.
If the equation of the motion is T = 2  l g Where g is acceleration due to gravity.
And you are required to draw a graph of :
(i) T 2 against l
(ii) L against T 2

1. THE GRAPH OF T 2 AGAINST l

T 2 (sec 2 )
T 2

l

l (cm)
T 2
The slope S of the graph is S= sec 2 / cm.
l

9
From a given equation ,
l
T = 2
g

l
T 2 = 4 2
g

4 2
2
T = l
g
Compare with the equation of straight line.
y = mx + c when c = 0

4 2
y= mx ; T2 l
g

4 2
Then m = .
g
4 2
Then from the graph; Slope of the graph S = sec/ cm
g

4 2
There for g= cm / sec 2
S

4 2
g= m / sec 2
100S

2. THE GRAPH OF l AGAINST T 2

l
(cm)
l

T 2

T 2 (sec 2 )

10
 l
The slope S of the graph is S = cm / sec 2
T

l
From the given equation T = 2 
g

l
T 2 = 4 2
g

gT 2
l =
4 2
Compare with the equation y = mx + c where c= 0
gT 2
y = mx ; l =
4 2
g
Then m =
4 2

g
From the graph; slope S=
4 2

 g = 4  S cm/sec 2

4 2 S
g= m / sec 2
100

NOTE ; The graph should go through the origin. If do not go through the origin the intercept
indicate a zero error in either a measuring the length of a pendulum ( l ) or time for oscillation.

SOURCES OF ERRORS AND THEIR PRECAUTIONS IN SIMPLE PENDULUM

EXPERIMENT.

1. ZERO ERROR
(i) A zero error of a meter rule in measuring the length of a pendulum .
(ii) A zero error of analogy stop watch (if it was used) in measuring the time for
oscillation.
Precautions;
(i) To measure from a zero mark of a meter rule or measure from a clear mark
(eg 2 cm mark) and subtract from the result.
(ii) To adjust analogy stop watch so that the pointer start from a zero mark.
2. REFLEX ACTION . (MISTIMING OF THE OSCILLATION).

11
 Precautions:
(i) To use a fiducial mark (reference mark) when counting the number of
oscillations
(ii) To take the time for large number of oscillations rather then a few number of
oscillations.

3. PARALLAX ERROR.
(i) Parallax error in measuring the length of a pendulum and a point of analogy
stop watch (If the analogy stop watch is used ).
(ii) Parallax error in viewing the reference mark (fiducial mark).
Precautions.
(i) To take a careful observation by viewing at right angle above the mark .
If the scale is horizontal , view vertically, view vertically perpendicular to the
scale above the mark.

Observer’s eye

If the scale is vertically, view horizontally perpendicular to the scale

Observer’s eye

(ii) To take careful observation in viewing a reference mark (fiducial mark).

4 .INSTRUMENTAL ERROR.

(i) Error due to improper calibration of a scale in a meter rule

12
 (ii) Error due to improper calibration of a scale in analogy stop watch (* if the
analogy stop watch is used ).
(iii) Error due to a small pulses per second in a stop watch.
Precautions:
(i) To use correct calibrated meter rule.
(ii) To use correct calibrated stop watch (if analogy stop watch is used).
(iii) To use a stop watch of many pulses per second (eg 100 pulses per second).

5.MECHANICAL VIBRATION.(SETTING ERROR)

The Error due to mechanical vibration of a pendulum or setting error.
Precautions
(i) To displace a pendulum gently a slightly in a small angle.
(ii) To use two clamped cork pads or pieces of wood to suspend the string .
(iii) To avoid wind.

13
PRACTICAL NO 1:
In this experiment you are required to find the relationship between the length of a simple
pendulum at is period (the time for one oscillation)

Retort stand l = 140cm

Bob
A bench /
Table Floor

Suspend a simple pendulum of a length 140cm as shown in a Fig above. Displace the a
pendulum through a small angle so as to make it swing in a vertical plane parallel to the edge of
the bench or table. Determine the time needed for 20 oscillations of the pendulum. Now reduce
the length “L” of the pendulum by 20cm each time and obtain a total of six readings. Don’t
repeat any reading of the time taken for 20 oscillations so as to find an average time to be
recorded.
(a) prepare table of results.
(b) Plot the graph of T2 against length “ l ”
(c) Does the graph passes through the origin.
(d) From the formula given below , obtain T2 in terms of other quantities.
l
T2 = 2
g
(e) find the slope “S” of the graph and use slope to obtain the acceleration
due gravity “g”.

14
PRACTICAL NO 2
The main aim of this experiment is to determine the acceleration due to gravity “g” at your
school. Proceed as follows:

l = 120cm

Suspend a simple pendulum of length 120cm as shown in the figure above .Displace the
pendulum through a small angle so that it swings in a vertical place parallel to the edges of the
bench .
Determine the time for 10 oscillations of the pendulum. Reduce the length “ l ” of the pendulum
by 20cm each time and obtain a total of five readings .
(a) Prepare a table of results containing l (cm),Time (sec),period time T (for one
oscillation) and T2 (sec2 ) .
(b) Plot a graph of “ l ” against T2 .
(c) Find the slope (s)of your graph .
(d) If T = 2 l g is the equation for the motion of the pendulum. Calculate the
acceleration due to gravity of the pendulum.
(e) Mention any three sources of error in your experiment.

15
PRACTICAL NO 3
The aim of this experiment is to determine acceleration due to gravity (“g”) and the length of a
pendulum (“H”). Proceed as follow:
Set up apparatus as shown below in figure;

Retort stand

H
Bob
A bench /
Table d = 10cm Floor

Figure.
a) Suspend the pendulum from a fixed point. Using a retort stand such that
it is a distance of d = 10cm from the floor. ‘H’ is the height of a point of
suspension above the floor.
b) Displace the pendulum through a small angle,  = 10 0 to one side and
record the time ‘t’ for 10 complete oscillations. This will allow you to
find the periodic time, ‘T’, of one complete oscillation.
c) Vary ‘d’ in the interval of 10cm to obtain five more values of ‘d’ and
repeat the procedure from (b) above.
d) Tabulate your results for the values of d, t, T and T 2 .Write the value of
H below the table of value.
e) Plot the graph of T 2 against d.
i) Determine the slope of the graph
ii) determine the intercept along the d-axis.
iii) What does the intercept along the d-axis in (ii) above represent?
4 2 d 4 2 H
iv) If T 2 = 
g g
Is the equation for the motion of the pendulum ,calculate the acceleration
due to gravity of the pendulum.
v) mention any three sources of error in the experiment.

16
PRACTICAL NO 4.
The aim of this experiment is to find the acceleration due to gravity “g” and the ratio Q defined
in (d) using a simple pendulum.

Y
x
Retort
stand N •
b

Figure

a) Suspend the pendulum bob, B as the shown in the figure above , make a knot N at distance of
10cm from the Bob , x is the distance between the point of suspension Y and the knot N on the
string. Set x = 60cm and pull the pendulum bob at a small angle, release it such that it swing in a
vertical circle, record the time for 20 oscillations. Calculate the periodic time T for one
oscillation hence determine T2.
b) Repeat the above procedure for value x =50,40,30,20 and 10cm tabulate the results.
c) (i) Plot a graph of T 2 against x
(ii) Find the slope s of your graph
(iii) Read and record T 2 o the value of T 2 where x = 0.
d) Evaluate Q where Q = T 2 o/s
e) How is ‘b’ related to T 2 o/s
f) Find the acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ given that g = 4π2
s

17
PRACTICAL NO 5:
In this experiment you are required to find the relationship between the length of simple pendulum
at its periodic time, T
proceed as follows;

Retort stand

100cm
A bench

bob

fig;

Suspend a simple pendulum of length 100cm as shown in fig. above. Displace the pendulum
through a small angle so that it swings in a vertical place parallel to the edge of the bench.
Determine the time needed for 20 oscillations of pendulum. Now reduce the length, l of the
pendulum by 20cm and again find the time for 20 oscillations, continue reducing the length of
the pendulum by 20cm each time and obtain a total of five readings
a) Prepare a table of results containing length,l9cm), time, t (sec), T(sec),log l(cm) and log(sec)

b) plot a graph of log T(sec) against log l (cm)

c) Does the graph pass through the origin?
d) Given that;
T  la
T = kl a
Deduce (by derivation) the relation which governs the motion of simple pendulum above.
e) obtain slope of your graph above
f) Read intercept log T (cm)
g) Find the ratio k/a in the form of b/c where c ≠ 0.
h) What is the aim of this experiment ?
i) State any five sources of error and their precautions taken during experiment.

18
 PRACTICAL NO 6
In this experiment you are required to find the relationship between the length of a simple
pendulum and its period. Proceed as follows;

(a) suspend a simple pendulum of length L = 100cm. displace the pendulum through a small
angle so that it swings parallel to the edge of the bench or table, determine the time for 20
oscillations . Continue reducing the length of the pendulum by 10 cm each time and obtain a total
of six readings.
(b) Record your readings in a table as shown below.

Length of Log 10 L Time for 20 Period T Log 10 T

Pendulum oscillation
L(cm)

Assuming that T  L a , we have T = kL a and taking logarithms to base ten on both sides we get
log 10 T = a log 10 L + log 10 k.
(i) Plot a graph of log 10 T (vertical axis) against log 10 L (horizontal axis) hence determine the
values of a and k each correct to one decimal place.
b
(ii) From your answer in (i) above write down the values of a and k each in the form of
c
where b and c are integers (i.e. whole numbers).
(iii) from the assumption and your answer in (ii) deduce the form of the equation governing the
motion of the simple pendulum.

19
PRACTICAL NO 7:
You have provided with a bob, retort stand and two meter rules, arrange as shown in the diagram
Below . (half meter rule may be used)

Ruler ruler
Retort
stand

y x Ruler

a) (i) suspend the given bob

(ii) Displace the pendulum bob through a distance x = 15cm as shown above.
(iii) Measure and record the vertical displacement y of the bob.
b) Repeat procedure (a) above for x = 20,30,35 and 40cm.
c) Record the table of results for x, y and x 2 . Record the length H of a pendulum at the top of
your table of the result.
d) Plot a graph of x 2 against y.
e) Find the slope s of your graph.
f) Given that x 2 = 2Loy .Calculate the value of Lo.
g) Comment on the value of Lo and state the aim of this experiment.

20
PRACTICAL NO 8:
The aim of this experiment is to determine the acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ at your school, and
a constant Tc for the ruler provided : proceed as follows.
L

Ruler

Inelastic string

Bob
Round floor

a) (i) By using a clamp or vice , fix the meter ruler on one leg of a bench as shown in the figure
above so that the flat part of the ruler should be vertical and the projection L from the
fixed end should be 80cm.
(ii) By means of string given suspended the pendulum ob from the hole through the meter
As illustrated in the figure above.
b) (i) Starting with the length of a pendulum l = 80cm ,displace the bob through a small angle
along the direction of the length of the ruler and then release it so that it performs small
amplitude oscillation. Record the time t 20 for twenty (20) complete oscillations and
hence the period T for one oscillation.
(ii) Without altering L, repeat procedure b(i) above for the values of l in turn 70cm, 60cm,
50cm, 40cm and 30cm.
c) (i) Plot the graph of T 2 against the length of a pendulum l .
(ii) From your graph ,determine the acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ at your school and the
Constant given that ;

T 2 = 39.49 l + Tc
g
Show clear how you obtaining and Tc.
d) What is significances of the constant Tc in your experiment.

21
PRACTICAL NO 1
In this experiment you are required to determine the mass of unknown object “x”.

Clamp metre ruler

Spiral spring

Optical pin pointer

pain

Assemble the piece of apparatus as shown in figure, with zero mark scale of the rule at the lower
most end.
Record the reading of the position of pointer on the scale of meter rule when the pan is empty as
S0.
Put 20g to the pan and record pointer readings S.
Find extension e = S – S 0 ,cm
Repeat the procedure for mass of 40g, 60g and 100g. Put object x on the pan and record its
pointer reading.
(a) Summarize your results in a table follows.
Mass on pan (g) 20 40 60 80 100 x
Pointer reading (cm)
Extension, e = S-S 0 (cm)

(b) plot graph of mass against extension (m Vs e).

(c) Find slope, P, of your graph.
(d) Find mass x..
(e) Find Q , given that Q = P x e, where ex is extension of x.
(f) Comment on Q and x.

25
PRACTICAL NO 2.
The aim of this experiment is to determine the mass of a give object “B” and the constant of the
spring provided.
Clamp 0

spinal
spring pointer rule

Retort stand

A pain

100
Fig
( i ) Set up the apparatus as shown in fig . with zero mark of the meter rule at the top of the
rule and record the scale reading, by the pointer, S 0 .

(ii) Place the object “B” and standard weight (mass) W equal to 20g in the pan and record the
New pointer reading S 1 - S 0 in cm
(iii) Repeat the procedure in (ii) above with W = 40g,60g,80, and 100g.

(a) Record your results in tabular form as shown below:

Table of results:
S0 =
Mass (kg) Force, F (N) Pointer reading S 1 Extension
(cm) = S 1 -S 0 (cm)
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
(b) Plot graph of Force F (vertical axis ) against extension e (horizontal axis).
(c) Use your graph to evaluate
(i) Mass of B (ii) Spring constant, K, given that force , extension, constant and weight of
b are related as follows; F = Ke - B
26
PRACTICAL No 3
The aim of this experiment is to determine the mass of unknown weight labeled x and the force
constant of the spring k . 0 cm

pointre

S0 Retort stand.
retort stand

Retort stand

Weight Pain

100cm

Figure
Set up the apparatus provide as shown in figure above. Add 50g mass on to the weight pan so
that any “kinks” in the spring are removed. Leave this weight for the whole experiment but
ignore it in all readings. Record the scale reading S 0 . Add 50g on to the weight pan and record
the new scale reading S. Calculate the extension (e = S - S 0 ) caused by the weight . Repeat with
different weights (W) to obtain at least five readings. Tabulate your results. Replace the
weights(W) by the weight x provided and find the corresponding extension.
Record this extension as S x cm
(a) Plot a graph of load against extension.
(b) (i) Find the gradient (G) of your graph.
(ii) What is the physical meaning of the gradient?
(c ) From the gragh , what is the mass of the weight labeled x ?

27
PRACTICAL NO 4
The aim of this experiment is to verify Hook’s law by using a spiral spring .
Proceed as follows;
0 cm

meter
rule

Pointer

Retort stand
retort stand

Weight pain

(i) Set up the apparatus provided as shown in the figure above, with zero mark of the
scale of the meter rule at the topmost end. record the scale reading by the pointer
when the pan is empty as l 0 .
(ii) Place 50g mass on the pan and record the new length l indicated by the pointer.
Calculate the extension (e = l - l 0 ) caused by the weight .
(iii) Add another 50g mass each time up to 350g , and record the corresponding values of l
for added mass.
(a) Tabulate your results as shown in the table below.
l0 = cm
Mass m, (g) Load F (N) Length l Extension e (l - l )
50
100
150
200
250
300
350

(b) Plot a graph of load against extension

(c) From the graph find
(i) slope G of the graph
(ii) Extension caused by a mass of 180g
(d) Deduce whether a given spiral spring obeys Hooke’s law
(e) (i) State the law
(ii) What is the coefficient of stiffness (force constant) for a given spiral.
Spring.
(f) State the sources of error and their precautions for this experiment 28
PRACTICAL NO 5
The aim of this experiments is to determine the coefficient of stiffness (force constant) for given
spiral spring, proceeds as follows.

0 cm

meter
pointer rule
Retort stand

Retort stand

Weight pan

100cm

i Set up the apparatus provided as shown in the figure with zero mark of a meter rule at the
top end , and record the reading, by the pointer, s 0
ii Place mass m, 50g on the pan and record the new reading, by the pointer s 1 , calculate the
extension e = s 1 -s 0
iii Repeat the procedure in (ii) above with masses m =100g 250g,200g,250g,300g and 350g.

(a) Tabulate your results for the value of m ,load (F) , and e . Write the value of s 0 at the table of
Value.
(b) Draw a graph of extension e (vertical axis) against load F (horizontal axis)
(c) Find the slope Q of your graph
(d) What is the coefficient of stiffness (force constant)

29
PRACTICAL NO 6
You are provided with a spiral spring, meter rule , retort stand, weight pan with pointer and
masses proceed as followings.

0 cm

meter
pointer rule
Retort stand

Retort stand

Weight pan

100cm

(i) Set up the apparatus provided as shown in the figure with zero mark of meter rule at the
top end .\read the length indicated by a pointer l 0
(ii) Place mass m, of 50g on the pan and record the reading l by a pointer.
(iii) Repeat the procedure in (ii) above with masses m = 100g,150g,200g,250g,300g and 350g.

(a) Tabulate your results for the value of mass m (g), length l (cm) and weight W(N) procedure
by giving masses. Write the value of l 0 on top of the table of value.
(b) Draw a graph of length l (vertical axis) against weight w (horizontal axis)
(i) Find Q when the weight = 0.
(ii) What is the physical significance of Q
(d) Relate Q and l 0
(e) Suggest the aim of this experiment.
(f) Mention two sources of errors in this experiment.

30
PRACTICAL NO 7:
The aim of this experiment is to investigate whether string A obeys Hook’s law.

pulley
G-Clamp Piece of wood

h0

Spring A retort stand

pointer

Wooden bar

pointer

Figure
Proceed as follows:
Clamp string A at one end, attach a weight pan at the other end and pointer to give a reading on a
scale as shown in figure above.
Measure the height, h 0 when the pain is empty.
Place 50 mass on the pan and record the new height h indicated by the pointer.
Add another 50g mass each time up to 300g,and record the corresponding values of h for added
mass.
(a) Tabulate your results as shown in the table below.
h0 = cm.
Mass,(g) Height, h (cm) Extension (h - h 0 ) Stretching force,
cm F (N)
50
100
150
200
300

(b) Plot a graph of force F (N) against extension (cm).

(c) From the graph find the
(i) slope, K of the graph
(ii) Extension caused by a mass of 180g.
(d) Deduce whether string A obeys Hooke’s law.
(e) State the law.

30
 PRACTICAL NO 8
The aim of this experiment is to find the acceleration of the weights. Proceed as follows:

Spiral spring

Brick

Bench top

Cellotaped pointer

Meter rule

Clamp one end of the spring on one retort stand and attach the hanger to the lower end. Arrange
the retort stand such that the spring is over the end of the bench and the bottom of the hanger is
about 5cm below the edge of the bench. Make sure that the retort stand is firm by putting a brick
on the base. Use cellotape to fix the pin on to the bottom of the hanger so that it forms a horizontal
pointer. Use the second retort stand to fit a meter rule vertically in such a way that the zero mark is
on top and the pointer is horizontal across the scale.

Not the position p 0 of the pointer on the scale. Add a 50g mass to the hanger and note the new
pointer reading p. Set the spring and added mass into vertical oscillations with small amplitudes.
Find the periodic time T by timing a suitable number of vertical oscillations. Repeat the same
procedure with added masses of 70g, 90g, 110g, and 150g. tabulate your results and plot a graph of
extension x of the spring against the square of periodic time(T 2 ).
(i) Find the gradient G of the graph.
(ii) What does g represent ?
(iii) Mention any two sources of errors and precautions taken.

32
Table of results:
Load Pointer reading Extension Time for 50 Periodic T2
added (gf) P0 P x(cm) Oscillations(sec) Time T(sec)
50
70
90
110
150

33
PRACTICAL NO 9
The aim of this experiment is to determine Young’s Modulus of a given metre rule (L). Proceed
as follows:
Table G-clamp

50g h0
h

GROUND W

(a)
Take the metre – rule (L) whose weight is provided and fix it at its 10 cm mark by means
of a G – Clamp. Record the height (h 0 ) above the ground of the 50cm mark of the rule.
Take the 50g weight provided and suspend it on the metre – rule at the 50cm mark using a
string . Note the length (l) of the rule between the position of the clamp and the position of
the 50g weight. Note also the new height (h) of the 50cm mark above the ground.
(see figure).

(b) Change the position of the 50g weight 60cm, 70cm, 80cm and 90cm respectively and repeat
the measurements as in (a) above for each new position.
(c) Record your readings in a suitable table and include columns for y = (h 0 - h) and l 3 .
(d) Plot a graph of l 3 (vertical – axis) against y = ( h 0 - h) (horizontal – axis).
(e) Determine the slope of the graph.
(f) Measure the width (b) and the thickness (d) of the metre – rule provided by using the
vernier calipers provided.
Wl 3
(g) Calculate “young’s Modulus (E)” using the relation y = giving the answer in SI
3IE
Units.
db 3
Where W = 50g weight + weight of the rule and I =
12

Note: Weight of the rule will be given by the supervisor.

34
PRACTICAL NO 10
The aim of this experiment is to find the young’s modulus  for a wooden meter rule.
Proceed the follows

1cm

l = 80cm

Table

G- Clamp
L = 50g

GROUND FLOOR

Using a G – clamp, clamp the wooden meter rule provided along the top of the bench with its
graduated face upwards so that a length of 80cm projects over the edge of the bench as shown in
the figure above.
(a) Apply a load, L of 50gm attached to a string at a point about 1cm from the free
end of the wooden meter rule and measure the depression, d, of the rule.
Repeat this procedure for L = 100gm, 150gm, 200gm, 250gm and 300gm.
(b) Record the results for the weight and depression in a tabular form.
(c) Measure the breath ,b, and thickness ‘t’ of the meter rule and its length l, that projects
over the edge of bench.
(d) Plot a graph of d (vertical axis) against L (horizontal axis)
(e) Use your graph to find the gradient G.
4 (l ) 3
(f) Evaluate  in gm – wt cm 2 from the equation  =
Gb t

35
PRACTICAL NO 1:
Set up the experiment as shown in the diagram below using plane mirror, soft board, three pins
and a white sheet of paper.
M

U V
O I
N

C
B
A

P
E

Fix a white sheet of paper on the soft board. Draw a line across the width at about the middle of
the white sheet (MP). Draw line ON I perpendicular to MP.
Fix optical pin O to make ON = U = 3cm. By using plasticine or otherwise,fix plane mirror along
portion of MP with O in front of the mirror. With convenient position of eye, E, look into the
mirror and fix optical pins A and B to be in line with image, I, of pin O.
Measure and record NI = V . Repeat procedure for U = 6 cm, 9cm and 12cm.

(a) Tabulate your results as follows:

U(cm) 3 6 9 12
V(cm)

(b) Plot graph of U against V

(c) Calculate slope, m, of the graph to the nearest whole number
(d) State relationship between U and V
(e) Write equation connecting U and V using numerical value of m with symbols U and
V
(f) From your equation give position of the image when object is touching the face of the
Mirror.

46
PRACTICAL NO 2
The aim of this experiment is to find the relation ship between the angle of rotation of the
reflected ray from a plane mirror and the angle of the mirror. Proceed as follws

B2

O
A1  B1

A2 T
Q R
U

P S

(a) Pin the drawings paper provided to the desk or drawing board with drawing pins, and
draw two straight lines A 1 B 1 and A 2 B 2 to enclose an angle of  = 10 0 .
Draw a line through O making an angle 75 0 with A 1 B 1 .This represents the incident ray and
insert two pins P and Q on this line. Place the reflecting surface of the mirror labeled M along
A 1 B 1 . Place pins R and S to appear in line with images of P and Q.

Remove the pins R and S join ORS. Turn the mirror through an angle  = 10 0 so that its
reflecting surface lies along A 2 B 2 .Stick pins T and U to appear in line with images of
P and Q. Join the line OUT, record the angle  corresponding to a shown in the above diagram.

(b) Repeat the experiment with  = 15 0 , 20 0 , 25 0 , 30 0 and 35 0 each time recording your
observation in a tabular form with A 1 B 1 , fixed.

(c) Draw a graph of angle of  against angle 

(d) Determine the slope of the graph.
(e) from the graph ,give a relationship between  = 

47
Table of results

Angle  (deg) Angle  (deg)

10
15
20
25
30
35

48
PRACTICAL NO 3
The aim of this experiment is to find the refractive index of a glass block.
Proceed as following;

Place the given glass block in the middle of the drawing paper on the drawing board. Draw lines
along the upper and lower edge of the glass block . Remove the grass block and extend the line
you have drawn. Represent the ends of these lines segments as SS 1 and TT 1 . Draw the normal
NN 1 to the parallel lines SS 1 and TT 1 as shown in fig (a).

S S1
O

T T1

Fig (a)
Draw five evenly spaced lines from O to represent incident rays at different angles of incident
( 10 0 , 20 0 , 30 0 , 40 0 and 50 0 from the normal). Replace the glass block carefully between SS 1
and TT 1 . Stick two pins P 1 and P 2 as shown in Fig (b) as far apart as possible along one of the
line drawn to represent an incident ray. Locate emergent ray by looking through the block and
stick pins P 3 and P 4 and exactly in line with images I 1 and I 2 of P 1 and P 2 .Draw the emergent
ray and repeat the procedure for all the incident rays you have drawn. Finally draw in the
corresponding refracted rays.
NOTE: The drawing paper should be handed in together with other answer sheets.

P1
I1
P2 L
I2
o
r

P3
Fig.(b) P 4 49
(a) Record the angles of incidence I and the measured corresponding angles of refraction
“r” in a table . Your table of results should include the values of sin I and sin r.
(b) Plot the graph of sin I (vertical- axis) against sin r (horizontal-axis).
(c) Determine the slope of the graph.
(d) What is refractive index of the grass block used ?
(e) Mention any source of errors in this experiment.

50
 PRACTICAL NO 4
The aim of this experiment is to determine the relative index of glass for light passing from air to
grass. Proceed as follows:

P1 N

P2
A


B C P3
P4

(a) Place the rectangular glass block flat on the drawing paper fixed on the board. Using a sharp
pencil, trace the outline of the block . Remove the block and draw the normal NAB (Fig.) near
the left end of the block. Draw a line making an angle  = 20 0 with the surface of the block.
Elect
two pins p1 and P2 on this line at a suitable distance apart. Replace the block and erect two more
pins P3 and P4 at positions which appear to be in a straight line with the other two as seen
through the block. Again remove the block and draw the complete path of the ray as shown in
Fig. 2. Measure the distances BC and AC.

(b) Repeat the procedure in (a) above for values of c  = 30 0 , 40 0 , 50 0 and 60 0 , each time
make your drawing on a fresh part of the drawing paper.
BC
Record clearly the values of  , BC, AC, . Find the cos  and calculate k =
AC
(c) Plot a graph of cos  (vertical-axis) against k (horizontal-axis).
cos 
(d) Determine the relative refractive index  , given that  = ,the slope of your graph.
k
(e) State any two sources of errors and precautions that should be taken for this experiment.

NB: HAND IN THE DRAWING PAPERS WITH YOUR ANSWER BOOKLET.

51
PRACTICAL NO 5

The aim of the experiment is to determine the refractive index  of a given glass block.

N
T1

T2

R  R
O

R'
R' M T3
'
N T4

Figure
Place the rectangular glass block on the white paper on a drawing board . using a pencil ,trace the
outline of the block. Remove the grass block and draw a normal NOM near the left end of the
block (Figure).
Using a protractor and a pencil measure  = 20 0 , draw a line making the angle 20 0 with the
surface RR of the block . Elect two pins T1 and T2 on this line and at a suitable distance from
one another . Return the block and erect the pins T3 and T4 at positions such that they lie in a
straight line with pins T1 and T2 as seen through the block. Now remove the block and draw a
complete path of the ray (Figure).

Measure the length MN ' and ON ' : Repeat the procedure for values of  = 30 0 , 40 0 , and 60 0
Respectively . In each case make a drawing on a fresh part of the drawings paper.

MN '
(a) Record the values of  , ON ' , and cos  in a tabular form.
ON '
MN '
(b) Plot a graph of against cos  .
ON '
(c) Find the slope G of the graph.
1
(d) Calculate the value of the refractive index  . , given that G =
.
(e) State two sources of errors.

52
PRACTICAL NO 6
The aim of this experiment is to find the critical angle C of the given glass block.

P1

P2 E

A B

D C
F G
P3 P4

Figure

Proceed as follows:
Place a white sheet of paper on the drawing board. Place the glass block, with one of its largest
surfaces top most on top of the white paper. Mark the outline of the glass block on the paper with a
pencil. Then remove the glass block and draw a line which cuts its largest sides normally at E and F
as shown in figure above.

Using a protractor draw an angle  = 30 0 with the glass block in its original position and stick the
first pin P1 and second pin P2 along the line of angle  =30 0 .Stick the third and fourth pins P3 and
P4 respectively, on the opposite side of the glass block such that P3 and P4 fall on a straight line with
P1 and P2 when viewed through side CD of the glass block.

Remove the glass block and trace the straight path taken by the ray G, P3 P4 .Using a rule, join G
and E.
Measure the angle of refraction r 0 , then calculate the values of cos  and sin r 0 Repeat the same
procedure of values  = 40, 50 0 , 60 0 , 70 0 and 80 0. Record your results in a tabular form for the
values  , r 0 , sin r 0 and cos  .
(a) Plot a graph of sin r 0 (vertical axis)against cos  (horizontal axis).
(b) Find the slope of the graph.
(c) Calculate the value of C where slope = sin C.
(d) State the possible source of error and precautions you have taken during the experiment.

53
PRACTICAL NO 7
The aim of this experiment is to determine the critical angle C of the given glass block. Proceed
as follows:

Place a white sheet of paper on the drawing board. On top of this white paper place the glass
block with one of its largest faces top most (fig.). Mark its outline ABCD on the paper with a
pencil .Remove the block and draw a line that cuts AB normally at E and G.
(a) Measure angle  = 30 0 with a protractor. This is the angle of incidence.

P1

P2

A  0
E B

r0

D G C

P3

P4

Fig.
Put the grass block in its original position and stick the first pin P 1 and second pin P 2 along the
line of angle  = 30 0 . Then third and fourth pins P 3 and P 4 respectively, should be track on the
opposite side of the block such that they appear in a straight line with P 1 and P 2 when viewed
through side AB of the glass block. Remove the glass block and trace the straight path taken by
the ray F P3 P 4 . Join E and F using a rule.
Measure the angle of refraction r 0 ,and then calculate the values of cos  and sin r o .

Using the fresh page, repeat the same procedure (as (a) above) for values of
cos  = 40 0 50 0 , 60 0 , 70 0 and 80 0 . Tabulate the values of  0 , r 0 , sin r 0 and cos  0

Plot a graph of sin r 0 (vertical axis) against cos  0 (horizontal axis).

Find the slope s of the graph.
Calculate the value of c, where s = sin c 0 .
State two sources of errors and precautions to be taken during the experiment. 54
PRACTICAL NO 8
You are provided with a glass block, four sheets of drawing paper, four optical pins (or office
pins) and a drawing board.
Proceed as follows:
Place the glass block flat on the drawing paper fixed to the drawing board and with a sharp
Pencil, draw its outline.

P1
P2 i

N'
P3
P4

Remove the glass block and draw a normal NN ' to the longer edge of the block(see Fig.)
Draw a line making an angle of incidence (i) of 30 0 .Stick two vertical pins P 1 and P2
on this line .replace the glass block. Stick two more pins P 3 and P 4 on the other side of the
block so that they appear to be in the same straight line with the images of pins P 1 and P 2 as
seen through the block.
Remove the block and draw the complete path of the ray entering and leaving the block.
Measure the angle of refraction(r).

Produce the incident ray as shown in fig 2 and measure the perpendicular distance (d) between
the incident ray and the emergent ray.
Repeat this procedure for angles of incidence of 40 0 , 50 0 , 60 0 ,and 70 0 . In each case draw
the block again on a fresh part of the paper.
(a) Record your results in a table as follows:

i0 r0 d(cm) d cos r (cm) Sin (i-r)

30
40
50
60
70
55
(b) Plot a graph of d cos r (vertical axis ) against sin (i-r) (horizontal axis).
(c) Find the gradient of the graph.
(d) Measure the width of the glass block.
(e) How is the gradient related to the width of the glass block?

NB: Hand in your diagrams together with your answer book let..

56
PRACTICAL NO 9
The aim of this experiment is to find the apparent thickness of a glass rectangular block.

A P B

C E Q

D R

(a) Place a rectangular glass block on a white paper which is on a drawing board. Trace (draw
the sides of the glass block on that paper by using a pencil. Remove a glass block and draw
the line PE which meets line AB at 90 0 (perpendicular) see figure above.

(b) Place back glass block and stick a pin at P looking through the block (using only one eye)
from the other side of the block, stick pin Q and R to be in one straight line with the image
of P on one side of E in order to be in a straight line with the image of P and remove the
glass block after wards
(c) Join point Q and R and produce that line to meet line PE at I, measure the length IE and PE
and record.

(d) Repeat the procedure in (b) and (c) above by sticking pins at different position to obtain at
least four values and record them in the table
Length IE Length PE

(e) Find the average length IE

(f) What is the apparent thickness of a given glass block ie the average value of length IE.
(g) Give two sources of errors in this experiment

57
PRACTICAL NO 10
The aim of this experiment is to determine the value of refractive index  of glass prism.
S

D
P2 i
N M P3
P1 P4

R T

Proceed as follows
Place the prism on the paper and draw its outline with a sharp pencil (see figure above).
Construct the normal at a point N on RS as seen in figure above and an incident ray making an
angle of I = 30 0 with the normal. Replace the prism and insert pins P1 and P2 to define this
incident ray. View these pins through the prism from the opposite face ST and insert pins P3 and
P4 so that the in line with the image of P1 and P2. Remove the prism.
Join P3 and P4 to give the emergent ray.
Produce both the incident and emergent ray to intersect and enclose the angle of deviation D.
Measure the angle of incidence i and the angle of deviation D.
Repeat the experiment for the angle of incidence 40 0 ,50 0 60 0 and 70 0 using different parts of
paper in each case.

a) Tabulate your results as follows.

Angle of incidence i 30 40 50 60 70
Angle of deviation D

b) plot the graph of D (vertical axis ) against I (horizontal axis).

c) Deduce from your graph the minimum angle of deviation, call it Dm
d) Calculate the value of  given that

sin 12 ( s  Dm)
=
sin 12 ( s)

Where s (refractive angle) = 60 0

e) Mention one source of error in this experiment.

58
PRACTICAL NO 11
The aim of this experiment is to determine the refractive index  of water by apparent depth
method. Proceed as follows.
EYE Metre rule

liquid

Search pin

X l
Y

Beaker

Set the meter rule as shown in the diagram above, the zero mark of the scale of the rule at the
bottom.

(i) Put clear water in a measuring cylinder so that the depth of water indicated by the
scale of rule is y = 5cm
(ii) Drop an office pin o in the water so that it rests touching the wall of the measuring
cylinder.
(iii) By using another office pin s, as a search pin, move it up and down outside the
cylinder and locate the large l of pin o by non parallax method, read the depth x of the
image from water surface.
(iv) Repeat the method (i) to (iii) above with depth of water y = 6.5,8,9.5,11 and 12.5cm
(a) Tabulate the reading as

Depth Y (cm) 5 6.5 8 9.5 11 12.5

Depth X (cm)

(b) Plot a graph of y against x

(c) Find the slope of the graph
(d) What is the refractive index of water with respect to air
(e) State sources of error in this experiment

NOTE: The graph of x against y may be drawn.

59
PRACTICAL NO 12
You are provided with a retort stand, meter rule, tall beaker, 2 optical pins and clear water.
Proceed as follows;
meter

Beaker

Liquid ,L

H
d

Search pin

i Clamp the ruler as shown in the diagram above

ii put clear water in a beaker to a depth of H = 5cm indicated by the scale of a clamped rule
iii Drop one optical pin in a beaker so that it rest at the bottom when touching the wall
of a beaker
iv Clamp other optical pin in a cork and use it as search pin, move it up and down outside
the beaker to locate the position of image of a pin in the beaker by non parallax method.
Find the displacement d, of the image from the pin the beaker.
v Repeat procedure (ii) to (iv) above for the value of H = 7.5cm, 10cm, 12cm, and 14cm.
(a) Tabulate the results of H , d, and h , where h = H- d.
(b) Plot a graph of H against h
(c) Find the slope m of the graph
(d) What is the physical meaning of the slope
(e) Suggest the aim of this experiment

NOTE:
  
(i) The graph of H against d may be drawn use the relation H=  d
  1 
 1
(ii) The graph of d against H may be drawn use the relation d =   H
  

60
EXPERIMENTS ON TURNING EFFECT OF FORCE.
Experiments on turning effects of force concerning to;
1. Verification of the principle of moment.
2. (i) To find unknown mass (or weight) of a given object
(ii) To find unknown mass or weight of a level (or a ruler).
(iii) To determine unknown distance of a known mass.

THE PRINCIPLE OF MOMENT.

The principle of moment state that “When a body is in equilibrium under the action of forces, the
algeric sum of clockwise moment is equal to the algeric sum of anticlockwise (or counter
clockwise) moment taken about the same point”
OR
When a body is in equilibrium under the action of forces, the resultant moment taken about the
same point is zero”. F1 F3
r1 r3
r4 r2
F4 F 2

F 1 r 1 +F 2 r 2 = F 3 r 3 +F 4 r 4 .

SOURCE OF ERRORS AND THEIR PRECAUTIONS.

1. PARALLAX ERROR
A parallax error in measuring the length from the fulcrum (knife edge).
Precaution.
1. To take careful observation in viewing the mark on scale
2. Error due to improper calibration of a scale in a metre rule.
Precaution
To use proper calibrated metre rule.
3. Error due to improer weight ( or mass) of masses used.
Precaution.
To use proper masses or weight of masses.
4. Mechanical vibration.
Error due to mechanical vibration of a system.
Precaution.
(i) To put amass / weight gently on a level or to suspend the mass gently.
(ii) To avoid wind.
5. Error due to the thickness of the edge of a fulcrum (knife edge).
Precaution.
To use a thinner or sharp edge.

36
PRACTICAL NO 1:
The aim of this experiment is to determine the mass of object ‘x’.
Proceed as follows;
a) Find the centre of mass G, of a meter rule by placing it on a knife edge until it balances
horizontally using a pieces of a chalk put a mark on a balance point of your metre rule.
b) Suspend unknown mass of x on the left hand side, of your metre rule. On the right hand
Side suspend the mass m of 100g at a length b, 10cm from the knife edge (i.e the centre
of the mass).
Adjust the position of x until the ruler balance in the horizontal position (see figure).

G
a b

knife edge
m
100g
xg

wooden block

Read and record length “a” and “b” as shown on figure above
c) Move mass m to the right each time a length of 2.5cm, adjusting mass x in the left until
the metre rule balances, obtain seven reading and fill the table below.

a(cm)
b(cm) 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0 22.5 25

d) Plot a graph of ‘b’(vertical axis) against ‘a’ (horizontal axis)

e) Find the slope s of the graph.
f) Find the value of x = sm where m is as given above.
g) What does x represent ?.

37
PRACTICAL NO: 2
The aim of this experiment is to determine the density of wooden bar, a knifeedge and a100g
weight.
Proceed the follows:
(a) Locate the centre of gravity C of the wooden bar by balancing the bar freely about the knife
Edge.
(b) Suspend the 100g mass on the wooden bar as shown in Fing, 10cm from C adjust
The position of the knife edge to get a balance.

A B
C

100 g

(c) Record the distance of centre of gravity C from the knife edge as Y and distance between
the knife edge and 100 g mass as X
(d) Repeat procedures (b) and (c) above, by increasing the distance of the 100 g mass to 20 cm,
30cm, 40cm, 50cm and 60cm respectively from the center of gravity C. Tabulate your
results.
(e) Draw a graph of Y against X and calculate its gradient (G).
Calculate the mass (M) of the wooden bar, given that gradient G = 100
M

(f) Measure the length l , with w , and thickness t of the wooden bar hence calculate the
Density of wood given that

M
Density of wood,  =
lwt

38
EXPERIMENTS ON LIGHT
Experiments on light concerning to :
1. PLANE MIRROR
(i) Law of reflection.
To find the relationship between angle of incidence and the angle of reflection.
(ii) characteristics of image produced b by a plane mirror.
(iii) Sextant (Rotation of plane mirror).
To find the relationship between the angle of rotation of reflected ray .
(iv) Kaleidoscope.(Inclined plane mirrors)
To determine the number of images formed when two plane mirrors placed at an angle
90 0 , 60 0 and 30 0 .
2 GLASS BLOCK.
(i) Snell’s Law.
Determination of the refractive index of glass block.
(ii) Determination of critical angle of glass block.
(iii) determination of the width of glass block.
3 CLEAR WATER.
Real and apparent depth..
Determination of the refractive index of clear water.
4 GLASS PRISM.
Determination of the angle of minimum deviation and refractive index of a glass prism.

LAW OF REFLECTION.
1. The first law of reflection states that
“The incident ray, reflected ray and normal at the point of incidence, all lie on the same
Plane”.
2. The second law of reflection states that
“The angle of incidence and angle of reflection are equal and all measured from normal”.

i is anile of Incidence

i r r is angle of reflection

Then 2nd law: i = r.

CHARACTERISTICS OF IMAGE PRODUCED BY PLANE MIRROR.

O u v I

39
(i). Nature of the image
(ii). Position : The same distance from the mirror but behind the mirror v = u
(it can be obtained practically).
(iii) Size : The same size as object
(iv). It is elected (stands upright)
(v) It is lateral inverted (twisted side way in opposite side of object.)

or

SEXTANT (ROTATION OF PLANE MIRRORS)

N1 N2
o I1

I2
i 


When the mirror rotates through angle  the corresponding reflected ray rotates through angle
2
.   2 .

KALEIDOSCOPE (INCLINED PLANE MIRRORS)

360 0
The number of image N = 1.


40
 REFRACION
Refraction of right is the bending of direction of a light ray at the interface (boundary) of two
different material media due to the change of speed.

LAW OF REFRACTION.
1. The first law of refraction states that ,
“The incident ray ,refracted ray and normal at the point of Incidence all lie on the same
plane”

2. Snell`s law. (The second law of refraction) states that ;

“The ratio of the sine of angle of incidence to sine of the angle of refraction for a given
pair of media is constant.”

sin i
 cons tan t
Sinr

The constant value is called refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first
medium.

Sin..i
1 2 
Sin.r

Speed ,wavelength and frequency

C  f . Since the frequency is constant. C1  1 f .

Since refraction is due to the change in speed.

C1 1
1 2  
C 2 2

Where C1 and 1 are speed and wavelength of light ray in the first medium respectively.
C 2 and  2 are speed and wavelength of light ray in the second medium respectively.
Absolute refractive index is the refractive index when the light travels from vacuum or air
to any other substance.
Relative refractive index is the refractive index when the light travels from media to
another non of them is vacuum or air.

41
PRACTICAL NO 1
The aim of this experiment is to verify Ohm’s law.

Rh
E

Figure

(a). Set up the apparatus as shown on figure close Switch S . Adjust the Rheostat Rh by sliding
slowly from one end, read and record the value V of the voltmeter and current I of the ammeter.
(b). Repeat the experiment by changing the Rheostat slider to obtain about five pair of readings

NB: Adjust the Rheostat until when the pointer is exactly on the division of the metre scale.

Table of results

V (v)
I (A)

(c). Plot a graph of V (vertical axis) against I (horizontal axis).

(d). (i) Find the slope of the graph.
(ii) What is the relation between V and I ?
(iii) Find the resistance R.

62
PRACTICAL NO 2
The aim of this experiment is to determine the e.m.f. E and internal resistance r of a cell.

R A

Figure
(a) Connect the circuit as shown in figure above. Put R = 1  and quickly read the value of i
On the ammeter.
(b) Repeat the procedure in 3 (a) above, for value of R =2  ,4  and 5  respectively.
(c) Tabulate your results and complete the following table.

Resistance Current I
R(  ) I(A) (A -1)
i

1
2
3
4
5

Figure.
I
(d) Plot the graph of R against .
i
E
(e) The graph uses the equation R = r
i
(i) Suggest hown E and r may be evaluated from your graph.
(ii) Evaluate E for one cell.
(iii) Evaluate r for one cell.

(f) State one source of error and suggest one way of minimizing it.

63
PRACTICAL NO 3
The aim of this experiment is to determine the e.m.f and Internal resistance of dry cell
i Set up the circuit as shown in fig 3

Fig 3
Where K – is the key.
E = E.m.f.
V = Voltmeter
R = Resistor.

(ii) Starting with R = 40  and the key is closed record the voltmeter reading .
(iii) Repeat the procedure in (i) above for the value of R = 20  ,10  ,5  ,4  ,3  ,2  .
1 1
(iv) Plot the graph of against .
R V
(v) From the graph determine, The slope (s) and intercept y. Find the value of e.m.f (E) and
the Internal resistance (r) of dry cell from the equation E – V =Ir.
1 1
Show how the relation of Vs obtained.
R V
(vi) State any two sources of errors and precautions you take in performing this
experiment

64
PRACTICAL NO 4
The aim of this experiment is to determine the value of an unknown resistor labelleb R and the
internal resistance r, of the cell.

Proceed as follows:

Connect the given dry cell, ammeter, swich and resistor R = 2 0hms in series. Close the switch
and record the reading I of the ammeter . Repeat the procedure with the resistor R of 4 ohms, 6
ohms, 8ohms,10 ohms and Rx respectively.
(a) Tabulate your results band include the quantity 1 in your table.
I
(b) Plot a graph of 1 (vertical axis) against R (horizontal axis).
I
(c) From the graph, determine the value of Rx .
(d) Calculate the slope of the graph.
(e) Determine e.m.E and internal resistance, r , of the cell.

65
PRACTICAL NO 5
The aim of this experiment is to determine the resistance of a wire W.
Proceed as follow:
(a) Connect in series the full length of wire W of unknown resistance, battery B(3V), a switch
K, a rheostat Rh of a few ohms and an ammeter A of 0 – 1A.
Connect the voltmeter V of -3V across W. Check that the +ve side of the ammeter A and the
+ve side of the voltmeter V are both on the +ve side of the battery B.

(b) Switch on the current. Adjust the rheostat to obtain five widely different values of V and
Corresponding values of current I.
(c) Tabulate your results as follows:

Potential difference Current I (amperes)

V (volts)

(d) (i) Draw a circuit diagram.

(ii) Plot a graph of potential difference V against current I.
(iii) Find the slope of the graph.
(iv) Determine the resistance of the wire W.
(v) Mention two (2) main precautions to be taken in this experiment.

66
PRACTICAL NO 6
Your are provided with dry cells C, a resistance box R , a voltmeter V.
a switch S and two terminal blocks A 1 and A 2 ,arrange as shown in the circuit diagram below.

V
A1 A2

C
S
R

PROCEDURES:
(i) Using resistance of R = 1  in the resistance box ,close the switch and record the
reading V as indicated by the voltmeter.
(ii) Repeat the procedure above in (i) for values of R = 2  , 4  , 5  and 10  .
(iii) Record your reading in a tabular form as indicated.

R(  ) V (v) 1 1 1
(v ) (  1 )
v R
1
2
4
5

1 1
(a) Plot a graph of against .
V R
(b) From your graph,
(i) Find the gradient G of your graph.
1 1 1
(ii) Read and record N which is value of when = 0 ,then calculate .
V R N
1 1 1
(iii) Read and record M which is the value of when = 0, the calculate .
R V M
N
(c) Show how is related to G.
M
(d) What is the magnitude of current supplied by the dry cell (c)

67
PRACTICAL NO 7;
The aim of experiment is to determine the resistance per meter of the wire M provided.
(a) Connect the circuit as shown below;
+ -

(b) Starting with a length L = 0.10m, record the reading L of the meter.
(c) Repeat procedures (b) and (c) for L = 0.20, 0.30, 0.40, 0.50, 0.60, 0.70, 0.80, and 0.90m.
1
(d) Tabulate your results including values of .
L
1
(e) Plot a graph of L against and find the slope M of the graph.
L
(f) Calculate the resistance per meter ,R from the equation.

68
PRACTICAL NO 8:
The aim of the experiment is to verify Ohm`s Law.

Proceed as follows:
K B
A

A J C

Connect up the circuit as shown in the diagram .Close the key K and make contact with jockey J
such that AJ = 10cm. Record the potential difference V between A and J.

Repeat this procedure for = 20cm, 30cm, ……..90cm.

Note the current flowing through the circuit.

Tabulate your results and plot a graph of V (vertical) against L (horizontal).Calculate slope S.
Using your graph ,answer the following questions:
(a) (i) How could the actual resistance of any part of the wire be calculated?
(ii) Calculate the value of R for 100cm for slide wire S.
(b) If the current remains constant , to what do you attribute the differences in the fall of
Potential difference in different length of the wire ?
(c) What proportion can be established between the falls in different parts of the circuit and the
Resistance of those parts of the circuit?
(d) With the resistance of the wire constant, how does the fall of potential difference change
With the change of current?

69
PRACTICAL NO 9
The aim of this experiment is to determine the potential fall along a uniform resistance wire
carrying a steady current.

Proceed as follows:
K E Rh

0 100cm

A B

V
Fig

Connect up the circuit as shown in fig. Adjust the rheostat so that when the sliding contact J is
near B, and the key is closed, the voltmeter V indicates an almost full scale deflection .Do not
alter the rheostat again.
Close key K and make contact with J, so that AJ = 10 cm .Record the potential difference V
(volts) between A and J as registered on the voltmeter.
Repeat this procedure for AJ = 20cm, 30cm, 50cm, and 70cm.

(a) Tabulate your results for the values of AJ and V

(b) Plot a graph of V (vertical axis) against AJ (horizontal axis)
(c) Calculate the slope of the graph.
(d) What is your comment on the slope?
(e) State any precautions on the experiment.

70
Critical angle is the angle of Incidence which produce the angle of refraction to be 90 0 where
Light travels from denser medium to less dense.

ic

the refraction Index given are absolute refractive index when light travel from air to the
particular material. Since the direction is now reversed.

Sin.i 1
 i = ic, whern r = 90 0
Sin.r 

Sin.ic 1

Sin.90 0


1
Sin ic =  
 

1
Ic =Sin-1  
 

To DETERMINE THE REFRACTIVE INDEX AND CRITICAL ANGLE OF GLASS BLOCK.

 1 
The refractive index of glass is 1.5 (  = 1.5). The critical angle is ic =Sin -1   .Then ic =
 1 .5 

i
 A

r 

B C

Sin.i

Sin.r

42
When angle i is used ,the graph will be Sin I against sin r. Then the slope of the graph G is
obtained.

Sin I =G.Sin r.

Sin.i Sin.i
G= ; but 
Sin.r Sin.r

=G
 = Slope G of the graph.

When angle  is used,

 + i = 900 complementary angle, but sin i = Cos(900 –i)

900 -i = d

Sin I = Cos d

The graph will be Cos d against Sin r.

 = slope of the graph.

Cos.d
 =
Sin.r

Also consider triangle ABC from the figure above as shown.

The distance BC, AC, displacement “d” may be used

BC opposite
Since 
AC hypotenus
= Sin r.
AB
The graph of Sin i or Cos  against distance may be drawn.
AC
d
Then the slope of the graph represent refractive index  . Of a glass. Also   .
AC
AB dxAB
Cos r = then d.Cos r =
AC AC
The graph of d Cos r against Sin(i-r) may be drawn.
d  AB AC
The slope of a graph will be   AB
AC d
The slope represent the width of a glass block.
NOTE: The value of refractive Index of glass block  = 1.5. And critical angle ic =sin-1
1
 42 0
1 .5
43
REFRACTIVE INDEX OF WATER
(by real and apparent depth)

H = real depht
h h = apparent depht
H

real.depth

Apparent.depth

H

h

The graph of real depth (H) against apparent depth h . The slope of the graph represent refractive
H
Index of water  .
h
REFRACTIVE INDEX OF GLASS PRISM

N1
A0
D N2
i d1 re e
r1 r2 d2

A0

d1+d2 = D
r1  r2  r
For minimum deviation i = e, the light passing through the prism symmetrically.

The i + e = (d1 + r1) + (d2+r2)

= (d1 + d2) + (r1+r2) P Q
= D+r r1 r2
But r = A0
i + e = D + A0 R A0
2i = D  A 0
44
 D  A0
i=
2

 = Sin i
Sin r

 = Sin (Dm+A 0 )
Sin A 0

45
5 EXPERIMENTS ON ELECTRICITY:
SOURCES OF ERRORS AND PRECAUTIONS

1. ZERO ERRORS.
The Zero error of galvanometer ( or Ammeter and voltmeter when used)
Precautions.
To check the position of a pointer and adjust (to set ) to the zero mark.

2. PARALLAX ERROR.
Parallax error in reading the galvanometer ( or ammeter and Voltmeter when used) , meter
Bridge, potential meter.

Precautions.
(i) Take a careful observation.
(ii) To use Galvanometer (or Ammeter and Voltmeter) which has mirrors in a scale?

3. ERROR DUE TO IMPROPER CALLIBRATION OF ASCALE.

The error due to improper calibration of a scale in Galvanometer (or Ammeter and voltmeter)

Precautions
To use correct calibrated Galvanometer (Ammeter and Voltmeter when used), meter bridge
and potential meter.

4. Error due to thickness of the pointer in relation to the division of the scale.

Precautions.
To use instrument with small thickness.

5. The error due to sensitivity of instrument (galvanometer or ammeter and Voltmeter) due to the
effect of its own resistance ,rising heat of connecting wire due to its resistance.

Precautions.
Switch off the circuit, just after taking the reading (in each reading)

61