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Sudip Mondal <[email protected]> Tue, Apr 20, 2021 at 6:41 PM

To: Sudip Mondal <[email protected]>

In this article, you will find the Study Notes on Kirchhoff's Law, Nodal & Mesh Analysis will cover
the topics such as KVL, KCL, Nodal Analysis, Nodal Analysis including Super Node & Mesh
Analysis, Mesh Analysis including Super Mesh.
1. Basic Concepts

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law ( KVL): The sum of voltages around a closed-loop circuit is equal to
zero.
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) is Kirchhoff's second law that deals with the conservation of
energy around a closed circuit path. ... This voltage law states that for a closed-loop series
path the algebraic sum of all the voltages around any closed loop in a circuit is equal to zero.

Kirchhoff’s Current Law ( KCL): The algebraic sum of electrical current that merge in a
common node of a circuit is zero.
Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) is Kirchhoff's first law that deals with the conservation of
charge entering and leaving a junction. ... This idea by Kirchhoff is commonly known as
the Conservation of Charge, as the current is conserved around the junction with no loss of
current.

∑ IIN = ∑IOUT

NODAL ANALYSIS
The procedure for analysing a circuit with the node method is based on the following
steps:
Clearly, label all circuit parameters and distinguish the unknown parameters from the
known.
Identify all nodes of the circuit after that Select a node as the reference node also called
the ground and assign to it a potential of 0 Volts. All other voltages in the circuit are
measured with respect to the reference node.
Label the voltages at all other nodes & Assign and label polarities.
Apply KCL to each node and express the branch currents in terms of the node voltages.
Solve the resulting simultaneous equations for the node voltages.
Now that the node voltages are known, the branch currents may be obtained from Ohm’s
law.
Example: Find out the nodal voltage at each node & current in each loop by using the Nodal
method?

Solution: First of all we have labeled all elements and identified all relevant nodes in the circuit.

There are a few general guidelines that we need to remember as we make the selection of the
reference node.

1. A useful reference node is one that has the largest number of elements connected to it.
2. A useful reference node is one that is connected to the maximum number of voltage sources.

For the next step, we assign current flow and polarities

For node n1 voltage of the voltage source is known so

v1=Vs ……………………………(1)

& KCL at node n2 associated with voltage v2 gives:

i1=i2+i3 ….………………………… (2)

The currents i1, i2, i3 are expressed in terms of the voltages v1, v2, v3 as follows
 …………………….. (3)

From the relation (1) (2) & (3) we get….

………………………… (4)

Rewrite the above expression as a linear function of the unknown voltages v2 and v3 gives.

………………………. (5)

KCL at node n3 associated with voltage v3 gives:

or .....................……. (6)

Now we can write equation (5) & (6) in matrix form for the node voltage v2 and v3.

Or …………………………… (7)

In defining the set of simultaneous equations, we want to end up with a simple and consistent form.
The simple rules to follow and check are

Place all sources (current and voltage) on the right-hand side of the equation, as
inhomogeneous drive terms.

The terms comprising each element on the diagonal of the matrix must have the same
sign.

If you arrange so that all diagonal elements are positive, then the off-diagonal elements are
negative and the matrix is symmetric: Aij =Aji. If the matrix does not have this property there is
a mistake somewhere.

Once we put the equations in matrix form and perform the checks detailed above the solutions

then there is a solution if the the unknown voltage VK is given by:

 ………………………………… (8)

So for our example the voltages v2 and v3 are given by:

………………………………… (9)

………………………………. (10)

Nodal Analysis with Floating Voltage Sources. (THE SUPERNODE)

If a voltage source V2 is not connected to the reference node it is called a floating voltage source
and special care must be taken when performing the analysis of the circuit. In the circuit of the
given figure below the voltage source V2 is not connected to the reference node and thus it is a
floating voltage source. Here v2 is the node voltage while V2 is the source voltage between node
n2 & n3.

Circuit with a Supernode

The part of the circuit enclosed by the dotted ellipse is called a supernode. Kirchhoff’s current law
may be applied to a supernode in the same way that it is applied to any other regular node. This is
not surprising considering that KCL describes charge conservation which holds in the case of the
supernode as it does in the case of a regular node.

In our example application of KCL at the supernode gives

i1= i2+ i3 …………………………. (11)

In term of the node voltages Equation (11) becomes:

 …………………………… (12)

The relationship between node voltages v1 and v2 is the constraint that is needed in order to
completely define the problem. The constraint is provided by the voltage source V2.

V2 = v3 - v2 ……………………………………(13)

From equation (12) & (13),

and ........................……..(14)

Example- Nodal Analysis with supernode.

Determine the node voltages v1, v2, and v3 of the circuit in Figure below?

Solution: We have applied the first five steps of the nodal method and now we are ready to apply
KCL to the designated nodes. In this example, the current source Is constraints the current i3 such
that i3.

KCL at node n2 gives,

i1 = i2+Is …………….. (1)

And with the application of Ohm’s law

……………… (2)

Where we have used v1 = Vs at node n1.

The current source provides a constraint for the voltage v3 at node n3.

V3 = ISR3 ………………………. (3)

Now combining the equation (2) & (3).

.......……………….. (4)

MESH ANALYSIS

A mesh is defined as a loop which does not contain any other loops The procedure for obtaining the
solution is similar to that followed in the Node method and the various steps are given below.

1. Clearly,label all circuit parameters and distinguish the unknown parameters from the known.
2. Identify all meshes of the circuit & assign mesh currents and label polarities.
3. Apply KVL to each mesh and express the voltages in terms of the mesh currents.
4. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations for the mesh currents.
5. Now that the mesh currents are known, the voltages may be obtained from Ohm’s law.

Example - Find out the mesh current i1 & i2 for mesh 1 & mesh 2?

Solution: Our circuit example has three loops but only two meshes as show,the meshes of interest
are mesh1 and mesh2.

In the next step we will assign mesh currents, define current direction and voltage polarities. The
direction of the mesh currents I1 and I2 is defined in the clockwise direction as shown in the next
figure.

The branch of the circuit containing resistor R2 is shared by the two meshes and thus the branch
current (the current flowing through R2) is the difference of the two mesh currents.
Considering mesh1. For clarity we have separated mesh1 from the circuit in doing this, care must
be taken to carry all the information of the shared branches. Here we indicate the direction of mesh
current I2 on the shared branch.

Apply KVL to mesh1. Starting at the upper left corner and proceeding in a clock-wise direction the
sum of voltages across all elements encountered is

I1R1+ (I1-I2) R2-VS = 0 ………………………. (1)

Similarly, consideration of mesh2 : we have indicated the direction of the mesh current I1 on the
shared circuit branch.

Apply KVL to mesh2:

I2 (R3 + R4 ) + (I2-I1) R2 = 0 ...…………………………. (2)

From equation (1) & (2),

I1(R1+ R2) - I2 R2 = VS ………………………………. (3)

-I1R2 + I2 ( R2+R3+R4) = 0 ……………………………… (4)

In matrix form equations (3) & (4) becomes,

…………………….. (5)

Equation (5) may now be solved for the mesh currents I1 and I2.

Note: It is evident from Figure next figure below that the branch currents are i1 , i2 & i3 are obtained
from the mesh currents I1 & I2 such as.

I1 = i1 i2 = I1 – I2 i3 = I2

MESH ANALYSIS With CURRENT SOURCES:

1. If a current source exists only in one mesh.

(i) The mesh current is defined by the current source.

(ii) Number of variables is reduced.

2. If a current source exists between two meshes.

(i) The two nodes form a Supermesh.

(ii) Use one current variable for both meshes. The current difference between these two meshes
is known.
 (iii) Apply KVL to the Supermesh.

Example: Find out the unknown mesh current I1?

Solution:

Consider the circuit in the figure which contains a current source. The application of the mesh
analysis for this circuit does not present any difficulty once we realize that the mesh current of the
mesh containing the current source is equal to the current of the current source:

i.e. I2 = IS ……………………………… (1)

In defining the direction of the mesh current, we have used the direction of the current IS. We also
note that the branch current I3 = IS.

Applying KVL around mesh1 we obtain

I1R1 + (I1 + IS) R2 = VS ……………………………(2)

The above equation simply indicates that the presence of the current source in one of the meshes
reduces the number of equations in the problem.
The unknown mesh current is:

PRACTICE PROBLEMS WITH ANSWERS.

Q-1 Determine the currents in the given circuits with reference to the indicated direction?

Q-2 Determine the currents in the given circuits with reference to the indicated direction?

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In this article, you will find the study notes on A.C Circuit Analysis of Single Phase A.C
Circuit which will cover the topics such as Real Power, Reactive Power & Apparent Power this
topic also include the Power Factor & Power Factor Correction.
AC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

ALTERNATING QUANTITY: An alternating quantity is that which acts in alternate directions and
whose magnitude undergoes a definite cycle of changes in definite intervals of time.

ALTERNATING VOLTAGE: Alternating voltage may be generated by

By rotating a coil in a stationary magnetic field.

By rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil.

ADVANTAGES OF SINE WAVE

Any periodic non-sinusoidal wave can be expressed as the sum of a number of Sine wave of
different frequencies.
A sine wave can be expressed in a simple mathematical form.
The resultant of two or more quantities varying sinusoidally at the same frequency is another
sinusoidal quantity of same frequency.
The rate of change of any sinusoidal quantity is also sinusoidal.

CYCLE: A cycle may be defined as one complete set of positive and negative values of an
alternating quantity repeating at equal intervals. Each complete cycle is spread over 360° electrical.

PERIODIC TIME: The time taken by an alternating quantity in seconds to trace one complete cycle
is called periodic time or time-period. It is usually denoted by symbol T.

FREQUENCY: The number of cycles per second is called frequency and is denoted by symbol f.

f = 1/T

If the angular velocity w is expressed in radians per second, then

ω = 2π/T
ω = 2πf

Peak Factor: Ratio of maximum value to the RMS value is known as crest or peak factor or
amplitude factor.

Peak factor = Maximum Value /RMS Value

Form Factor: Ratio of RMS Value to average value is known as form factor.

Form Factor = RMS Value / Average Value

PHASE DIFFERENCE

ACTIVE, REACTIVE & APPARENT POWER OF AC CIRCUIT

When the current is out of phase with the voltage the power indicated by the product of the
applied voltage and the total current gives only what is known as apparent power and
measured in volt-amperes.
The power that is returned to the source by the reactive components in the circuit is called
reactive power and is measured in VAR.
The power that actually used in the circuit (dissipated in resistance) is true or active power and
is measured in watts or kW.

Impedance in AC circuit Z = R ± jX = |Z|∠Φ= |Z| cosΦ + j|Z| sinΦ

where X = j|(XL-XC)|

where |Z| = √(R2 + X2)

R= |Z| cosΦ

X= |Z| sinΦ

Power Factor of the circuit ⇒ cosΦ = R/Z

Current in the circuit = E/Z

This current has two components I cosΦ and I sinΦ. The component I cosΦ is called in phase or
watt full component and I sinΦ is perpendicular to E and is called wattless component.

Active (Real) Power = Voltage x Current x cosΦ watts

The total power EI in volt-amperes supplied to a circuit consists of two components:

(a) Active power = EI cosΦ watts

(b) Reactive power = EI sinΦ volt-amperes reactive or simply VAR.

OA = Active power = EI cosΦ presented by watts

AB = Reactive power = EI sin Φ expressed by VAR

OB = Total power = EI expressed by VA

4. RESONANCE IN AC CIRCUIT

SERIES RESONANCE

The circuit, with resistance R, inductance L, and a capacitor, C in series is connected to a single-
phase variable frequency (f) supply.
The total impedance of the circuit is

Z∠Φ = R+j(XL-XC)

where XL = jωL

XC = 1/jωC

The magnitude of the impedance under the above condition is |Z| = R, with the reactance X=0, as
the inductive reactance is equal to capacitive reactance. The phase angle is φ= 0, and the power
factor is unity (cos φ= 1 ), which means that the current is in phase with the input (supply) voltage.
So, the magnitude of the current I = V/R.

The magnitude of the voltage drop in the inductance L/capacitance C, both are equal

as the reactance are equal is⋅= (I.ωoL = I.1/(ωoC)

Quality Factor Q = ωoL/R = 2πfoL/R = 1/R √L/C

The impedance of the circuit with the constant values of inductance L, and capacitance C is
minimum at resonant frequency (fo ), and increases as the frequency is changed, i.e. increased or
decreased, from the above frequency. The current is maximum at f=fo , and decreases as frequency
is changed ( f>fo or f<fo) i.e. f≠fo.

PARALLEL RESONANCE
The circuit, with resistance R, inductance L, and a capacitor, C in parallel is connected to a single-
phase variable supply frequency (f).

The total admittance of the circuit is

Y∠Φ = 1/R + J(ωC-1/ωL)

The magnitude of the impedance under the above condition is ( |Z| =R ), while the magnitude of the
admittance is (|Y| = (1/ R )= G ). The reactive part of the admittance is B =0, as the susceptance
(inductive) BL=(1/ωL) is equal to the susceptance (capacitive) BC=ωC. The phase angle is φ =0, and
the power factor is unity (cos φ=1).

The input current increases as the frequency are changed, i.e. increased or decreased from the
resonant frequency (f>fo or f<fo) i.e.f≠fo.

POWER IN AC CIRCUIT

We saw in our tutorial about Electric Power that AC circuits which contain resistance and
capacitance or resistance and inductance, or both, also contain real power and reactive power. So in
order to calculate the total power consumed, we need to know the phase difference between the
sinusoidal waveform of the voltage and current.

The phase angle is given by,

φ = arg(V) − arg(I)

i.e. the angle from the current to the voltage. Therefore, positive phase angles mean that the current
lags the voltage, and thus are called lagging, and negative phase angles mean that the current
leads the voltage, and are called leading.

The power factor is defined as,

power factor = P/S = cos(φ)

As this is always a positive number the tag ‘leading’ or ‘lagging’ is usually added to describe the
phase difference.

where P (=VI cosφ )is the Real Power

S(= VI) is the Apparent Power.

Real Power in AC Circuit

Real power P, so called true or active power, performs the “real work” within an electrical
circuit. Real power, measured in watts, defines the power consumed by the resistive part of
a circuit.
Then real power, P in an AC circuit is the same as power, P in a DC circuit. So just like DC
circuits, it is always calculated as I2R, where R is the total resistive component of the circuit.

Since resistance does not produce any phase difference between voltage and current
waveform, all the useful power is delivered directly to the resistance and converted to heat,
light, and work.
Hence the power consumed by a resistance is the real power which is fundamentally the
circuits average power.

Real Power P = I2R = V*I*cos(θ) Watts, (W)

since there is no phase difference the phase shift between the two waveforms will be zero (0).
Then:

P = Vrms x Irms x Cosθ ⇒ since cos 00=1

So P = Vrms x Irms x 1

or { P = Vrms x Irms }

Real power I2R measured in watts, which we read on our utility energy meter and has units in
Watts (W), Kilowatts (kW), and Megawatts (MW).
Note that real power, P is always positive.
Reactive Power in AC Circuit:

Reactive power Q,(also called wattless power) the power consumed in an AC circuit which
does not perform any useful work but has a big effect on the phase shift between the voltage
and current waveforms.
Reactive power is linked to the reactance produced by inductors and capacitors and
counteracts the effects of real power. Reactive power does not exist in DC circuits.

Unlike real power (P), reactive power (Q) takes power away from a circuit due to the creation
and reduction of both inductive magnetic fields and capacitive electrostatic fields, thereby
making it harder for the true power to supply power directly to a circuit or load.
The power stored by an inductor in its magnetic field tries to control the current, while the
power stored by a capacitors electrostatic field tries to control the voltage.
The result is that capacitors “generate” reactive power and inductors “consume” reactive
power. This means that they both consume and return power to the source so none of the real
power is consumed.

Reactive Power Q = I2X = V*I*sin(θ) volt-amperes reactive, (VARs)

Q = Vrms x Irms x Sinθ ⇒ since from phasor, sin 900=1

Q = Vrms x Irms x 1

Q = Vrms x Irms

Thus reactive power is the I2X reactive element that has units in volt-amperes reactive (VAR),
Kilovolt-amperes reactive (kVAR), and Megavolt-amperes reactive (MVAR).
Apparent Power in AC Circuit

There is a relationship between the real power (P), and the reactive power (Q), called the
complex power.
The product Vrms & Irms circuit is called the “volt-ampere product” (VA) given the symbol S and
whose magnitude is known generally as apparent power.
This complex Power is not equal to the algebraic sum of the real and reactive powers added
together but is instead the vector sum of P and Q given in volt-amps (VA).
 Where:

P is the I2R or Real power that performs work measured in watts, W.

Q is the I2X or Reactive power measured in volt-amperes reactive, VAR.
S is the I2Z or Apparent power measured in volt-amperes, VA.
θ is the phase angle in degrees. The larger the phase angle, the greater the reactive power.
Cosθ = P/S = W/VA = power factor, p.f.
Sinθ = Q/S = VAR/VA.
Tanθ = Q/P = VAR/W.

The power factor is calculated as the ratio of the real power to the apparent power because this ratio
equals cosθ.
Power Factor in AC Circuit

Power factor, cosθ, is an important part of an AC circuit, can express in terms of circuit
impedance or circuit power.
Power factor is defined as the ratio of real power (P) to apparent power (S).

In a pure resistive circuit, the current and voltage are in-phase with each other so the real
power consumed is the same as the apparent power as the phase difference is zero degrees
(0o).

So the power factor will be:

Power Factor, PF = cos 0o = 1.0

Which means that the number of watts consumed is the same as the number of volt-amperes
consumed producing a power factor of 1.0, or 100%. In this case, it is referred to a unity power
factor.

In a purely reactive circuit, the current and voltage out-of-phase with each other by 90o.

the power factor, in this case, will be:

 Power Factor, pf = cos 90o = 0

Which means that the number of watts consumed is zero but there is still a voltage and current
supplying the reactive load.

Hence we concluded that reducing the reactive VAR component of the power triangle will
cause θ to reduce improving the power factor towards one, unity.
It is also desirable to have a high power factor as this makes the most efficient use of the circuit
delivering current to a load.

Real Power (P) = Apparent power (S) x Power factor (p.f)

The disadvantage of Low Power Factor:

Poor power Factor or Low Power Factor less than unity has the following disadvantage:

Effect on Transmission lines(Greater conductor size): At low power factor, to transmit or

distribute the power at a constant voltage requires more current. To transmit high current,
higher conductor size transmission lines are needed. This increases the cost of transmission
lines.
Effect on Generators, Transformers: It is known that the electrical machinery (Generators,
Transformers) etc are rated in kVA rather than kW.

Where kVA = kW/ power factor

i.e The kVA is inversely proportional to kVA for a given kW. For lower power factor the electrical
machinery should be having higher kVA rating to drive constant kW load. Then the size and cost of
the electrical machine become expensive.

High losses in power system: Due to the high current for low power factor, the copper losses
increase in the transmission conductors and switch gear machinery.
High Voltage drops (poor voltage regulation): The large current at low lagging power factor
causes greater voltage drops in alternators, transformers, and transmission lines. This results
in a decrease in voltage at the driving end and enables the use of extra equipment to
counteract the voltage drop like voltage stabilizers. This increase the cost of the power supply
system.
How to avoid low power factor? (or) What are the various methods to avoid low power factor?

As far as possible, overexcited synchronous motors have to be used in place of induction

motors.
High-speed induction motors have better power factor than low-speed induction motors. They
are smaller in frame size and economical too.
The induction motors have maximum power factor when fully loaded. So we should try to use
induction motors at full load condition.

Various methods of power factor improvement are given below;

Using Static capacitors

Using synchronous motors
Using synchronous condensers
 Using Phase advancers
Using synchronous induction motors
Using high power factor motors

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A phase is carried out to the periodic modifications of a few quantities, which includes the
voltage in an AC circuit.
An electrical segment is measured in degrees, with 360° comparable to an entire cycle.
A sinusoidal voltage is proportional to the cosine or sine of the section.
Three-phase, abbreviated 3φ, refers to three different voltages and currents.
It is a system produced by a generator that includes three sources that contain the same
amplitude and frequency but out of phase from each other by 120°.
The three phases should be supplied over six-wire, with two wires used for each phase.
However, they are generally supplied over three wires
The phase or line currents are the currents in each wire.
AC Voltages and currents are expressed as RMS values

Following requirements must be satisfied in order to be a "balanced 3-phase set"

All 3 variables have the same amplitude

All 3 variables have the same frequency
All 3 variables are 120o in phase

Balanced System

Following requirements must be satisfied for a 3-phase system or circuit to be balanced.

All 3 sources are represented by a set of balanced 3-phase variables.

All loads are 3-phase with equal impedances(balanced load).
Line impedances are equal in all 3 phases.

Unbalanced System
A system is unbalanced if either the source is unbalanced or the load is unbalanced. Practically for
an unbalanced system, the source is always balanced and the load is unbalanced.

Advantages of 3 Phase Circuits

Electric power is generated and distributed in the three-phase system only.

The instantaneous power in a three-phase system is always constant.
The amount of wire required for a 3-phase system is lesser than that required for an equivalent
1-phase system.
For Similar power, the three-phase system is more economical than the single-phase.

Three Phase Circuit Connections

There are two methods for connecting a load or generator in a three-phase circuit.

The Y or "wye" connection joints neutrals of each phase at a common junction.

The Δ or "delta" connection is a triangle whose vertices form the buses, and there is no
neutral bus available.

Star or “Y” (also known as the “T”) configuration:

The star connection is made by connecting one end of each of phase windings together (as
shown in the above figure).
The voltage measured across a single winding or phase is known as the phase voltage.
The voltage measured between the lines is known as the line-to-line voltage or simply as the
line voltage.
In a star connected system, the line voltage is greater than the phase voltage
In a star connected system, phase current and line current are the same.

Delta, or Δ (also known as the “Pi,” or π) configuration:

 In a delta connection, line voltage and phase voltage are the same.
The line current of a delta connection is higher than the phase current

Balanced Three‐Phase Connections

Four possible connections between source and load.

Y-Y connection
Y-∆ connection
∆-∆ connection
∆-Y connection
Wye‐Delta transformation

Wye-Delta transformation is also called as star-delta transformation.

Wye-Delta Transformation is a technique to reduce common resistor connections that are
neither in series nor on parallel.

Conversion from Delta (Δ) to Wye (Y)

Conversion from Wye (Y) to Delta (Δ)
Transformations
Note: Both Star Delta Transformation and Delta Star Transformation permits us to transform one sort
of circuit connection into some other kind so as for us to without difficulty examine the circuit. These
transformation strategies may be used to precise impact for star or delta circuits containing
resistances or impedances.

Example-1: Compute the total resistance between A and B terminals in the following network
circuit.

Using the Delta to star transformation, the following network in between 1,2,and 3 points converted.
Delta to star transformation equations:
Now, it is easy to compute the total resistance between points A and B.
RAB = (7Ω+3Ω) + (8.5Ω+1.5Ω) + 1Ω = 6Ω.

Example-2: Compute the total resistance between A and B terminals in the following network
circuit.

Solution: In the above circuit, identify the star connections (Y) which is shown with circles in the
following circuits.
Star-Delta Transformation

Similarly other circle can also be converted from star to delta as included in the following circuit.

It is simple to convert two parallel connections of above circuit into the below circuit.

RAB = { [ (7+5) || 8 || 8 ] + 5 } || 8 || 4
RAB = (3 + 5) || 8 || 4
RAB = 4 || 4
RAB = 2Ω

Note: Both Star Delta Transformation and Delta Star Transformation allow us to convert one type of
circuit connection into another type in order for us to easily analyze the circuit. These transformation
techniques can be used to good effect for either star or delta circuits containing resistances or
impedances.

Three-Phase Power:
If line values of voltage and current are known, the power (watts) of a purely resistive load is:

If the phase values of voltage and current are known, the apparent power is:

3 Phase A.C. Circuit- Part 1, Download PDF

3 Phase A.C. Circuit- Part 2, Download PDF

3 Phase A.C. Circuit- Part 3, Download PDF

The Three-Phase AC Circuit is an important topic for GATE EE, SSC JE EE, ESE IES EE, ISRO EE,
and other electrical engineering exams.

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In this article, we will see about Filter Circuit & Coupled Circuit which contains the topics Low
Pass, High Pass & Band Pass Filter & Magnetic Coupled Circuit.

Filter Circuit

A filter is a circuit arrangement that is capable of passing certain frequencies while attenuating the
rest of the frequencies. Thus, a filter circuit can pass the desired important frequencies from signals.

In the electronics industries, there are many practical applications for filters. Examples include:
1) Radio communications: Filters allow radio receivers to only "watch" the desired signal while
rejecting all other unwanted.

2) DC power supplies: Filters used to eliminate undesired high frequencies (i.e. noise) that are
present in AC input lines. Additionally, filters are also used on a power supply output to reduce
ripple.

3) Audio electronics: A crossover network is a type of network of filters that are used to channelize
the low-frequency audio to woofers while mid-range frequencies to midrange speakers, and high-
frequency sounds to tweeters.

4) Analog-to-digital conversion: Filters are placed in front of an ADC input to minimize the aliasing
effect.

Filters are linear circuits that can be represented as a two-port network:

Filter are basically Classified as:

1) Passive filter

2) Active filter

Passive filters are the type of filter circuits that are developed using resistor, inductor and capacitor
as their major elements. They are mostly responsive to a frequency range from100Hz to 300MHz.

Active filters are those filter circuits that are designed using transistor and op-amp as their basic
elements. Along with these elements, circuits of active filters will also contain resistor and capacitor,
but not inductors.
Active filters are capable of dealing with very low frequencies (approaching 0 Hz), and can provide a
high voltage gain (passive filters cannot).

Active filters can also be used to design the high-order filters without using any type of inductors.
However, active filters are least suitable for very-high-frequency applications because of the issue of
amplifier bandwidth limitations.

Filters are further classified on the basis of frequency responses:-

1) Low-Pass Filter

2) High-Pass Filter

3) Band-Pass Filter

4) Band Stop Filter

5) All-Pass Filter

1) Low Pass Filter: It is a type of filter that passes signals with a frequency lower than a desired
cutoff frequency and attenuates signals with frequencies higher than that of the preset cutoff
frequency.

2) High Pass Filter: It is a type of filter that passes signals with a frequency higher than a desired
cutoff frequency and attenuates signals with frequencies lower than that of the preset cutoff
frequency.

3) Band Pass Filter: It is a type of filter that passes signals frequencies within a specific range and
cancel (attenuates) frequencies outside that course.

4) Band Stop Filter or Band Rejection Filter: It is a type of filter that passes all frequencies
unaltered, but attenuates those in a preset range.

5) All-Pass Filter: It is a signal processing filter that passes all frequencies of the signal.

Some technical terms are mentioned below that are commonly used when describing filter
response curves:

1. A) -3dB Frequency. This "minus 3dB frequency", corresponds to the input frequency of the
signal that causes the output signal to drop by 3dB relative to the input signal. This -3dB
frequency is also referred to as the cutoff frequency, and it is the frequency at which the
 output power is reduced by one-half. This is this frequency is also called the "half-power
frequency".
2. B) Center frequency (f0) This term used for band-pass type filter and notch type filters, it is a
central frequency that occurs between the upper and lower cutoff frequencies. The center
frequency is commonly referred to as either the arithmetic mean or the geometric mean of the
lower cutoff frequency and the upper cutoff frequency.
3. C) Bandwidth (B.W). The bandwidth is the space length of the pass-band, and the pass-band
is the band of frequencies that do not experience attenuation when moving from the input to the
output of the filter.
4. D) Stop-band frequency (fs). It is a particular frequency at which the attenuation reaches a
specified value.

In case of low-pass filter and high-pass filters, frequencies beyond the stop-band frequency are
considered as the stop-band.

For band-pass and notch type filters, two stop-band frequencies do exist. The frequencies between
these two stop-band frequencies are considered as the stop-band.

Coupled Circuits

An electrical circuit is considered to be a coupled circuit if there exists a mutual inductance

between the coils.

There are two types of Classification of Coupling:-

1) Electrical Coupling

2) Magnetic Coupling
1) Electrical Coupling:

Electrical coupling occurs when there exists a physical connection between two coils (or inductors).
This coupling can be of aiding type or opposing type. It is based totally on the current direction i.e
whether it enters at the dotted terminal or leaves the dotted terminal.

1.1) Coupling of Aiding type

Consider the following electric circuit, having two inductors that are connected in series.

Since the two inductors are connected in series. Hence the same current I will flow through the
inductors having self-inductance L1 and L2
In this case, the current I enter the dotted terminal of each inductor. Hence, the induced voltage in
each inductor will have positive polarity at the dotted terminal.

On Applying KVL in the loop we get

The above equation is in the form of:

Hence the equivalent inductance of series combination will be Leq = L1+L2+2M

In this case, the equivalent inductance increased by 2M factor. Hence the above electrical circuit is
an example of aiding type.

1.2) Coupling of Opposing type

Consider the below electric circuit, having two inductors that are connected in series.
In the above circuit, the current I enter at the dotted terminal of the inductor L1. Hence it induces a
positive voltage in the other inductor having an inductance of L2.

In the above circuit, the current I leave from the dotted terminal of the inductor L2. Hence it induces
a negative voltage in the other inductor having an inductance of L1.

On Applying KVL in the loop we get

The above equation is in the form of

Hence the equivalent inductance of series combination will be Leq = L1 + L2 −2M

In this case, the equivalent inductance decreased by 2M factor. Hence the above electrical circuit is
an example of an opposing type.
2) Magnetic Coupling:

Magnetic coupling exists when there is no physical connection between two coils. This coupling can
be of aiding type or opposing type.

It is based totally on the current direction i.e whether it enters at the dotted terminal or leaves the
dotted terminal.
2.1) Coupling of Aiding type

Consider the electrical equivalent circuit of transformer, having two coils and these are called as
primary coils and secondary coils.

The currents flow through primary and secondary coils are i1 and i2 respectively. In this condition,
current enters at the dotted terminal of the coil. Hence, the induced voltage in each coil will have
positive polarity in the dotted terminal due to the flow of current in another coil.

On Applying KVL in the around primary coil.

On Applying KVL in the around secondary coil.

In 1 and 2, the self-induced voltage and mutually induced voltage will have the same polarity.
Hence above transformer circuit is an example of magnetic coupling and of aiding type.

2.2) Coupling of Opposing type

Consider the electrical equivalent circuit of transformer, having two coils and these are called as
primary coils and secondary coils.
The currents flows through primary and secondary coils are i1 and i2 respectively. In this condition,
the current, i1 enters at the dotted terminal of primary coil. Hence induces a voltage in secondary
coil. So positive polarity of the induced voltage present at the dotted terminal of the secondary
coil.

In the above circuit, the current, i2 leaves from the dotted terminal of secondary coil. Hence, it
induces a voltage in primary coil. So negative polarity of the induced voltage present at the dotted
terminal of this primary coil.

On Applying KVL in the around primary coil.

On Applying KVL in the around secondary coil,

In 3 and 4, self-induced voltage and mutually induced voltage are having opposite polarity. Hence
above transformer circuit is an example of magnetic coupling and of opposing type.

The Filter Circuit & Coupled Circuit an important chapter of the Network theory most commonly
asked in the GATE EE, SSC JE EE, ESE IES EE, ISRO EE, and other electrical branch exams.

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In this article, you will find the study notes on Network Theorems & Transformation which will
cover the topics such as Super Position Theorem, Thevenin's Theorem, Norton's Theorem &
Millman's Theorem & Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.

Network Theorems: The fundamental theory on which many branches of electrical engineering,
such as electric power, electric machines, control, electronics, computers, communications, and
instrumentation are built is the Electric circuit theory. So here the network theorem helps us to solve
any complex network for a given condition.

Note: All the theorems are only applicable to Linear Network only, according to the theory of Linear
Network they follow the condition of Homogeneity & Additivity.

Homogeneity Principle:

A system is said to be homogeneous, for any input signal x(t)

If input x(t) gives → response y(t)

then, it must follow ⇔ k x(t) →k y(t)

i.e scaling in any input signal scales the output signal by same factor.

Additivity Principle:

A system is said to be homogeneous, for any input signal x(t)

If two input x1(t)+ x2 (t) ⇔ y1(t) + y2(t)

then, k1x1(t) + k2x2 (t) ⇔ k1 y1(t) + k2 y2(t)

i.e the output corresponding to the sum of any two inputs is the sum of of there respective outputs.
1. SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

Superposition theorem finds use in solving a network where two or more sources are present and
connected not in series or in parallel.

Superposition theorem states that if a number of voltage or current sources are acting
simultaneously in a linear bidirectional network, the resultant response in any branch is the algebraic
sum of the responses that would be produced in it, when each source acts alone replacing all other
independent sources by their internal resistances.
Procedure for using the superposition theorem:
Step-1: Retain one source at a time in the circuit and replace all other sources with their internal
resistances.
Step-2: Determine the output (current or voltage) due to the single source acting alone.
Step-3: Repeat steps 1 and 2 for each of the other independent sources.
Step-4: Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the
independent sources.

So for above given circuit the total response or say current I through resistor R2 will be equal to the
sum of individual response obtained by each source.

Removing of Active Element in Superposition Theorem:

1. Ideal voltage source is replaced by short circuit.

2. Ideal current source is replaced by open circuit.

Limitation: Superposition cannot be applied to power calculation because the power is related to
the square of the voltage across a resistor or the current through a resistor. The squared term
results in a non-linear (a curve, not a straight line) relationship between the power and the
determining current or voltage.

Example: Determine the value of current I in 17 ohm resistor by using super-position theorem.

Solution:

Firstly, only 12 V source is active.

Now, only 10 V source is active.

2. THEVENIN'S THEOREM

Thevenin’s theorem states that any two output terminals of an active linear network containing
independent sources (it includes voltage and current sources) can be replaced by a simple voltage
source of magnitude VTH in series with a single resistor RTH where RTH is the equivalent resistance
of the network when looking from the output terminals A & B with all sources (voltage and current)
removed and replaced by their internal resistances and the magnitude of VTH is equal to the open
circuit voltage across the A & B terminals.

The procedure for applying Thevenin’s theorem

To find a current IL through the load resistance RL using Thevenin’s theorem, the following steps are
followed:

Step-1: Disconnect the load resistance ( RL) from the circuit,

Step-2: Calculate the open-circuit voltage VTH at the load terminals (A & B) after disconnecting the
load resistance ( RL ).

Step-3: Redraw the circuit with each independent source replaced by its internal resistance.

Note: Voltage sources should be short-circuited and current sources should be open-circuited.

Step-4: Look backward into the resulting circuit from the load terminals (A & B). Calculate the
resistance that would exist between the
load terminals.

Step-5: Place RTH in series with VTH to form the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

Step-6: Reconnect the original load to the Thevenin equivalent circuit as shown in the load’s
voltage, current and power may be calculated by a simple arithmetic operation only.
3. NORTON'S THEOREM

Norton’s theorem states that any two output terminals of an active linear network containing
independent sources (it includes voltage and current sources) can be replaced by a current source
and a parallel resistor RN. Where, RN which is the equivalent resistance of the network when looking
from the output terminals A & B with all sources (voltage and current) removed and replaced by their
internal resistances and the magnitude of IN is equal to the short-circuit current across the A & B
load terminals.

Norton Equivalent Circuit can be shown as:

Example: Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the following circuit at terminal a-b.

Solution: Circuit can be redrawn as:

4. MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem states a resistive load, being connected to a DC network,
consumes maximum power when the load resistance is equal to the thevenin’s equivalent
resistance of the source network as seen from the load terminals.

A variable resistance RL is connected to a dc source network as shown in figure above and the
Thevenin’s voltage VTh and Thevenin’s equivalent resistance RTh of the source network. The aim is
to determine the value of RL such that it consumes maximum power from the DC source.
Steps for Solution of a Network using Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

Step 1: Remove the load resistance and find the Thevenin’s resistance (RTh) of the source network
looking through the open circuited load terminals.

Step 2: As per the maximum power transfer theorem, this RTh is the load resistance of the network
i.e. RL = RTh that allows maximum power transfer.

Step 3: Find Thevenin’s voltage (VTh) across the open-circuited load terminals.

Step 4: Maximum Power Transfer is given by:

Pmax = (Vth)2/ 4Rth

Note: Maximum power transfer condition results in 50 per cent efficiency in Thevenin equivalent,
however much lower efficiency in the original circuit.

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1. MILLMAN’S THEOREM

Millman’s theorem helps to reduce 'N' number of parallel voltage sources to one. It can be observed
in the given figure below. This technique permits finding the current through or voltage across
RL without applying any method such as mesh analysis, nodal analysis, superposition, and so on.
For example, the given three voltage sources can be reduced to one voltage source.

Generally, three steps are included in its application

Step 1: Convert all voltage sources into current sources.

Step 2: Convert the parallel current source into resulting network as shown below

IT= I1+I2+I3 & GT = G1+G2+G3

Step 3: Convert the resulting current source to a voltage source by transformation, and the desired
single-source network will be shown as
The plus-and-minus signs appears in the last equation to include those cases where the sources
may not be supplying energy in the same direction.

In terms of resistances values:

and

2. RECIPROCITY THEOREM

The reciprocity theorem is applicable to the single-source networks only. The theorem states that the
current I in any branch of a network due to a single voltage source E present anywhere else in the
network will be equal to the current across the branch in which the source was originally placed if
the source is placed in the branch in which the current I was originally(initially) measured.

In other words, the location of the voltage source and the resulting current may be interchanged
without a change in magnitude of current. The theorem postulates that the polarity of the voltage
source have the same adaptation with the direction of the branch current in each position.

Example: Verify Reciprocity theorem.

 Interchanging (or reciprocating) the location of I and E in the last figure to demonstrate the
validity of the reciprocity theorem.

3. TELLEGEN'S THEOREM

Tellegen’s theorem is based upon two Kirchhoff’s laws and is also applicable for any lumped
network having elements that are linear or non-linear, active or passive, time-varying or time-
invariant.
For a lumped network whose element assigned by associate reference direction for branch
voltage vk and branch current jk.The product vkjk is the power delivered at time t by the network
to the element k.
If all branch voltages and branch currents satisfies KVL and KCL then

Application of Tellegen's Theorem:

As seen from the last equation, the Tellegen’s Theorem implies the law of energy conservation.“The
sum of power delivered by the independent sources to the network elements is equal to the
sum of the power absorbed by all the branches of the network.” So, the application of
Tellegen's theorem can be classified as

Conservation of energy
Conservation of complex power
The real(or active) part and the phase of driving point impedance
Driving point impedance
Example: Find all branch voltages and currents for both networks N1, N2, and then verify Tellegen’s
theorem.

4. SUBSTITUTION THEOREM

The substitution theorem states that "If the voltage across any branch and the current flowing
through that branch of a dc bilateral network are known, then that branch can be substituted by any
one of the combinations that can consist of the same voltage and current through that chosen
branch.

More simply, the theorem states that for branch equivalence, the voltage across the terminal and
current through the terminal must be the same. Consider the circuit in which the voltage across and
current through the branch a-b are determined. Through the use of the substitution theorem, few
number of equivalent a-a′ branches are shown. Note that for each equivalent circuit, the terminal
voltage & the current remains same.

By the use of the substitution theorem, the number of equivalent branches are:

Note : for each equivalent, the terminal voltage and current are the same and known potential
difference and current in a network can be replaced by an ideal voltage source and current source
respectively.

Example: The current source equivalence where a known current is replaced by an ideal
current source, permitting the isolation of R4 and R5 as shown below
Recall the discussion of bridge networks that V = 0 and I = 0 were replaced by a short-circuit and an
open circuit respectively.

5. STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION

A part of a bigger circuit that is configured with the three-terminal network Y (or Δ) has to be
converted into an equivalent Δ (or Y) through transformations.
Applications of these transformations will be studied by solving the resistive circuits.
Delta (Δ) – Wye (Y) conversion:

Let us consider the network shown below and assumed the resistances ( RAB, RBC, RCA) in Δ
network are known. Now the requirement is to measure the resistance values of the branches of the
Wye (Y) network that would produce same resistances when measured across similar pairs of
terminals of Δ network. For this We have to write the equivalence resistance between any two
terminals in the following form.

on solving above equations, we get values for star network resistances

Conversion from Wye or Star (Y) to Delta (Δ):

To convert a Wye (Y ) to a Delta (Δ ), the relationships RAB, RBC & R3 must be obtained in
terms of the Wye (Y) resistances RA RB and RC Considering the Y connected network, we can
write the current expression through RA resistor as
 After equating the coefficients of VAB and VAC in both sides, we get the following relationship

similarly we can obtain for RBC for equivalent delta configuration

Observations: With a view to the symmetry of the transformation equations, the Wye (Y) and
Delta (Δ) networks have been superimposed on each other.
The equivalent Wye (Y) resistance connected to a given terminal is equal to the product of the
two Delta (Δ) resistances connected to that same terminal divided by the sum of all the Delta
(Δ) resistances.
The equivalent Delta (Δ) resistance between the two-terminals is the product of the two-star (Y)
resistances connected to those terminals divided by the third-star resistance plus the sum of
the two same star (Wye) resistances.

The network theorems and transformation explained in the 2nd part is an important chapter of
the Network theory as it most asked in the GATE EE, SSC JE EE, ESE IES EE, ISRO EE, and other
electrical branch exams.

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In this article, you will find the study notes on Two Port Network which will cover the topics such
as Z-parameter, Y-parameter, h-parameter, g-parameter, T-parameter, Interrelationship
between different types of parameter & Series, Parallel and Cascade connection of Two Port
networks.
TWO PORT NETWORK

A pair of terminals through which a current may enter or leave a network is known as a port.
Two-terminal devices or elements (such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors) result in one-
port networks.
The four-terminal or two-port circuits are used in op-amps, transistors, and transformers.
Two Port Network circuit is shown below.

The current entering one terminal leaves through the other terminal so that the net current
entering the port equals zero.
A two-port network consists of two pairs of terminals in which one pair of terminals is
designated as input and other pair being output.
Two port networks are useful in communications, control systems, power systems, and
electronics.
To characterise a two-port network requires that we relate the terminal quantities V1, V2, I1, and
I2. The various terms that relate these voltages and currents are called parameters.
When the voltage or current are compared at same port then the term defined the Driving
Imminence Function,while on the other hand when the comparison is done at different port
then the function will defined as Transfer Imminence Function.
1. (Z-parameters) Open circuit Impedance Parameters

Here, The voltages at input and output are expressed in the terms of input and output currents. The
equations are given below.

V1 = Z11I1 + Z12I2

V2 = Z21I1 + Z22I2

where, Z11, Z12, Z21 and Z22 are called the Z-parameters.

The Z-Parameter are found as follow:

The z-parameters are also called as open-circuit impedance parameters because they are
obtained as the ratio of voltage and current when it is open-circuiting port 2 ( I2 = 0) or port 1 ( I1 =
0).

Z11 is the driving Point impedance when output is open circuited.

Z12 is the reverse transfer impedance when input is open-circuited.
Z21 is the forward transfer impedance when output is open-circuit.
Z22 is the driving Point impedance when input is open-circuited.

2. (Y-parameters) Short Circuit Admittance parameters

Y parameters are achieved by representing the currents at the two ports of the network in terms of
voltages at two ports.Thus, voltages V1 and V2 are independent variables, while I1 and I2 are
dependent variables.

The equations are given below.

I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2

I2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2

Where, Y11, Y12, Y21, Y22 are called the Y-parameters.

The y-parameters are also called short-circuit admittance parameters. These are obtained as a
ratio of current and voltage. The parameters are calculated by short-circuiting port 2 (V2 = 0) or port
1 (V1 = 0).

So the Y-Parameter can be found as follow:

 Y11 Short-circuit driving point input admittance
Y12 Short-circuit reverse transfer admittance
Y21 Short-circuit forward transfer admittance
Y22 Short-circuit driving point output admittance

3. h-parameters: Hybrid Parameters

These parameters are By expressing voltage at input port and the current at the output port,
the h-parameters are obtained.
Two-port network variables are selected as independent of the input current (I1 )and the output
voltage(V2).
Here,The input voltage and the output current are the dependent variables of this model.

Equations for voltage at input port and current at the output port are given below.

V1 = h11I1 + h12V2

I2 = h21I1 + h22V2

The h-Parameter can be found as follow:

h11 Short-circuit input impedance:

h21 Forward short-circuit current gain it is dimensionless .
h12 Reverse open-circuit voltage gain it is dimensionless :
h22 Open-circuit output admittance:
 The h-parameters are also called hybrid parameters since they consist of both open-circuit
parameters (I1 ) and short-circuit parameters (V2 )

4. ( g-parameters ) Inverse hybrid parameters

These parameters are obtained by expressing voltage at output port and the current at the
input port.
Off-diagonal g-parameters are dimensionless, while diagonal members have dimensions the
reciprocal of one another.

I1 = g11V1 + g12I2

V2 = g21V1 + g22I2

Here g12 and g21 are dimensionless coefficients, g22 is impedance and g11 is admittance.

5.(T-Parameters) or ABCD parameters Transmission Parameters

These parameters are generally used in the analysis of power transmission in which the input port
is considered as the sending side while the output port is considered as receiving side. These
parameters are calculated by expressing voltage and current at the output port.

ABCD parameters can be defined as following:

A is the reverse voltage ratio with open output.

B is the reverse transfer impedance with shorted output.
C is the reverse transfer admittance with open output.
D is the reverse current ratio with shorted output.

V1 = AV2 + B(–I2)

I1 = CV2 + D(–I2)
 The transmission parameters express the primary (sending end) variables V1 and I1 by
dependence of the secondary variables i.e., V2 (receiving end) and '-I2' . The negative sign of I2 is
used to mention that the current to enter the load at the receiving end.

Symmetry Condition: if input impedance seen through both the port is same then both port
are known as symmetric port.If port are symmetric then both port can be interchanged.
Reciprocity Condition: If only single source is acting in the circuit then “By changing the
position of response and excitation if ratio of response to excitation is constant then circuit is

reciprocal”.

6.Conversion of Z-parameter in term of Y-parameter

In the similar fashion we can obtain the other relationship

7.INTERCONNECTION OF TWO-PORT NETWORKS

The two-port networks can be connected in many ways such as series, parallel or cascade. the
configuration listed below:

Series Connection: When two 2-port network are connected in series configuration the z-
parameter of each port will be directly added in the result of equivalent 2-port network.

This can be concluded that if two-port networks with Z-parameters [Z]1,[Z]2,[Z]3,[Z]n , are connected
in series, then the equivalent two port-parameters are given as
 [Z]eq = [Z]1+ [Z]2+ [Z]3+ [Z]n

Parallel-connected Two-port Network: When two 2-port network are connected in Parallel
configuration the Y- parameter of each port will be directly added in the result of equivalent 2-
port network.

This can be concluded that if two-port networks with Y-parameters [Y]1,[Y]2,[Y]3,[Y]n , are
connected in Parallel, then the equivalent two port-parameters are given as

[Y]eq = [Y]1+ [Y]2+ [Y]3+ [Y]n

Cascade Connection of Two-port Network:

When two 2-port network are connected in cascaded configuration then the T-parameter of
equivalent two port network will be the Product of T-parameter of individual network.

networks have transmission parameters [A]1,[A]2,[A]3,[A]n, then the equivalent two-port parameter
will have a transmission parameter given as

[A]eq = [A]1*[A]2*[A]3*[A]n

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In this article, you will find the Study Notes on Steady-State Equation & Analysis which will cover
the topics such as Introduction, Response of the first order Systems, Response of the second
order Systems and Steady State error.
1. Introduction

Many applications of control theory are to servomechanisms which are systems using the feedback
principle designed so that the output will follow the input. Hence there is a need for studying the time
response of the system. The time response of a system may be considered in two parts:

Transient response: this part reduces to zero as t → ∞

Steady-state response: response of the system as t → ∞
2. Response of the first order systems

Consider the output of a linear system in the form Y(s) = G(s)U(s) where Y(s): Laplace
transform of the output, G(s): transfer function of the system and U(s): Laplace transform of the
input.
Consider the first-order system of the form ay + y = u, its transfer function is

For a transient response analysis, it is customary to use a reference unit step function u(t) for
which

It then follows that

On taking the inverse Laplace of the equation, we obtain

The response has an exponential form. The constant 'a' is called the time constant of the
system.
Notice that when t = a, then y(t)= y(a)= 1- e-1=0.63. The response is in two parts, the transient
part e-t/a, which approaches zero as t →∞ and the steady-state part 1, which is the output when
t → ∞.
If the derivative of the input are involved in the differential equation of the system, that is if
then its transfer function is

where
K=b/a
z =1/ b: the zero of the system
p =1/ a: the pole of the system
When U(s) =1/ s, Equation can be written as

Hence,

With the assumption that z>p>0, this response is shown in

 We note that the responses to the systems have the same form, except for the constant terms
K1 and K2 . It appears that the role of the numerator of the transfer function is to determine
these constants, that is, the size of y(t), but its form is determined by the denominator.
3. Response of second-order systems

An example of a second-order system is a spring-dash pot arrangement, Applying Newton’s

law, we find

where k is spring constant, µ is damping coefficient, y is the distance of the system from its
position of the equilibrium point, and it is assumed that y(0) = y(0)' = 0.

Hence,

On taking Laplace transforms, we obtain,

where K =1/ M , a1 = µ / M , a2 = k / M . Applying a unit step input, we obtain

 where are the poles of the transfer function that is,
the zeros of the denominator of G(s).
There are there cases to be considered:

over-damped system:

In this case, p1 and p2 are both real and unequal. The equation can be written as

critically damped system:

In this case, the poles are equal: p1 = p2 = a1 / 2 = p , and

under-damped system:

In this case, the poles p1 and p2 are complex conjugate having the form

The three cases discussed above are plotted as:

There are two important constants associated with each second order system:

The undamped natural frequency ωn of the system is the frequency of the response shown in
Fig.
The damping ratio ξ of the system is the ratio of the actual damping µ(= a1M) to the value of the
damping µc , which results in the system being critically damped.

also,

Some definitions:

Overshoot: defined as
 Time delay τd: the time required for a system response to reach 50% of its final value
Rise time: the time required for the system response to rising from 10% to 90% of its final
value
Settling time: the time required for the eventual settling down of the system response to be
within (normally) 5% of its final value
Steady-state error ess: the difference between the steady-state response and the input.

4. Steady state error

Consider a unity feedback system

where
r(t) : reference input
c(t) : system output
e(t) : error
We define the error function as
e(t) = r(t) − c(t)

hence, Since E(s) = R(s) − A(s)E(s) , it follows that and by the final
value theorem

We now define three error coefficients that indicate the steady-state error when the system is
subjected to three different standard reference inputs r(s).

step input: r(t) = ku(t)

called the position error constant, then

Ramp input: r(t) = ktu(t)

In this case, is called the velocity error

constant.

Parabolic input: r(t) = 1/2 kt2 u(t)

In this case, is called the acceleration error

constant.

From the definition of the error coefficients, it is seen that ess depends on the number of poles
at s = 0 of the transfer function. This leads to the following classification. A transfer function is
said to be of type N if it has N poles at the origin. Thus if

At s = 0, K1 is called the gain of the transfer function.

Hence the steady-state error ess is summarized in Table

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When the output of an electric circuit for the given input varies with respect to time, then it is called
a time response. The time response will consist of Below two parts.

Transient Response
Steady-state Response

1) Transient Response: When an input is applied to an electric circuit, the output takes a time to
reach a steady-state. Hence the output will be considered in a transient state till it goes to a steady-
state. Therefore, the response of the electric circuit during the transient state is considered a
transient response.

Presence or Absence of Transients: Transients occur in the response due to instant change in the
sources that are applied to the electric circuit and or due to switching action in the circuit.

The two possible switching actions are:- Opening switch and Closing switch.

There are 3 basic components in Linear Electrical Circuits:

Resistance (R)
Capacitance (C)
Inductance (L)

The transient part will absent in the response of an electrical circuit or network if the circuit contains
only resistances. This is because the resistor is having the ability to adjust any amount of voltage
and current in it.

The transient part present in the response of an electrical circuit or network due to the presence of
energy storing elements like inductor and or capacitor. This is Because they can’t change the energy
stored in those elements instantly.

Inductor Behavior

Let us Assume the switching action takes place at time t = 0. The Inductor current does not change
instantaneously (due to inductor property) when the switching action takes place. That means, the
value of inductor current just after the switching action as well as just before the switching action will
same.

Mathematically, Inductor current can be represented as IL(0-) = IL(0+)

Capacitor Behavior

The capacitor voltage does not change instantaneously similar to that of the inductor current when
the switching takes place. That means, the value of capacitor voltage just after the switching action
as well as just before the switching action will same.

Mathematically, Capacitor Voltage can be represented as VC(0-) = VC(0+)

Voltage-Current Relationships for Different Passive Elements:-

Note: VR, VL, and VC are the voltages across R, L, and C elements respectively while iR, iL, and
iC Represent the current through R, L, and C elements respectively.

Now, Steps for Finding Transient Response :

Step 1: Identify the variable of interest (Inductor current for R-L circuit, Capacitor voltage for R-C
circuit).

Step 2: Determine the initial value of the variable according to the circuit.

Step 3: Calculate the final value of the variable according to the circuit.

Step 4: Calculate the time constant for the circuit (Circuit after switching).

Resistive circuits will have NO Transient:

Consider the resistive circuit as shown below

When the switch is ON, the voltage across R becomes V volts immediately (in zero time).

Instantaneous Voltage v(t) = V = iR for t ≥ 0

Instantaneous Voltage v(t) = 0 for t <0

First Order RC Circuit:

Using a loop, the sum of the voltage will be zero.

VTh = RTh · i (t) + v(t)

... Eq. (1)

Substitute in the capacitor current.

... Eq. (2)

This simplifies into the differential equation,

... Eq. (3)

Move the second term to the right-hand side and then divide by the numerator

... Eq. (4)

The indefinite integral resolves to the following form

... Eq. (5)

D is a constant of integration. Removing the natural log and solving for v(t) shows

... Eq. (6)

The constant eD represented by A, can be found at time t = 0

eDA=v(0)- VTH
... Eq. (7)

We can also solve for the final steady state.

... Eq. (8)

Substitute eq. (8) and (7) into eq. (6).

... Eq. (9)

the time constant from the product in the exponential term.

... Eq. (10)

Therefore, the final form of the complete response is :-

Inductor and Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit

Below is an inductor element connected to a circuit that has been reduced to its Thevenin’s
equivalent.

Applying KVL to the loop of this circuit

VTh = RTh · i (t) + v(t)

... Eq. (11)

The voltage across an inductor is given by:-

 ... Eq. (12)

Use this in eq. (11).

... Eq. (13)

On Rearrange the equation into a form that is easier to integrate.

... Eq. (14)

on Divide by the term in brackets, and integrate.

... Eq. (15)

The integral becomes,

... Eq. (16)

... Eq. (17)

At time t = 0, the constant eD = A is revealed.

... Eq. (25)

As time moves to infinity, the steady-state or forced response is found.

... Eq. (18)

The time constant is,

... Eq. (19)

Therefore the complete response of the current through an inductor element connected to a
Thevenin equivalent circuit is given by

The derived equation of voltage and current can be used for both RL & RC circuits.

The Transient and Steady-state Response explained in the 2nd part is an important chapter as it
mostly asked in the GATE EE, SSC JE EE, ESE IES EE, ISRO EE, and other electrical branch
exams.

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