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Sudip Mondal <[email protected]> Tue, Apr 20, 2021 at 7:40 PM

To: Sudip Mondal <[email protected]>

Control Engineering

Basically, Control engineering is applicable to aeronautical, chemical, mechanical, environmental, civil, and
electrical engineering which is based on the foundations of feedback theory and linear system analysis, and it
generates the concepts of network theory and communication system theory.

Hence according to the theory of control engineering, it is not limited to any engineering discipline but
applicable to the different areas which require the control process for their functioning & Stable Operations.

Open Loop Control System

An open-loop control system consists of a control actuator or controller to receive the desired response.
It uses an switching device to control the process directly without using any device.
An illustration of an open-loop control system is an electric toaster.
In Open Loop Controlling action, there is no feedback system present to sense the error in the desired
output.

Closed Loop Control System

In a closed-loop control system, it consists of an additional measure of the actual output to compare the
actual output with the desired output response.
This additional measure of the output is called the feedback signal.
A feedback control system that set out to maintain the relationship of one system variable to another by
comparing the functions of these variables and using the difference as a means of control.
Since as the system becomes more complex, the interrelationship of many controlled variables may be
considered in the control scheme.
An example of a closed-loop control system is a person steering (or driving) an automobile by looking at
the auto’s location on the road and making the appropriate adjustments.
TEMPERATURE CONTROL SYSTEMS

In the electric furnace, the temperature is measured by a thermometer, which is an analog device.
The analog temperature converted to digital temperature using an A/D converter. The digital temperature
is then fed to a controller through an interface.
The digital temperature is then compared with the programmed input temperature, and if there is any
error, the controller then sends out a signal to the heater, through an amplifier, interface, and relay to
bring the furnace temperature to the desired value.

Comparison between Open Loop & Closed Loop Control System

Feature Open Loop Closed Loop

Control System Control System
Effect of No effect on input. The output signal
Output on affects the controller
Input output into the
system.
Stability Very Stable The response
changes with the
change inn input
signal.
Response to No reaction to The output of
external disturbances. controller adjust itself
disturbances The open Loop in response to the
control works on input signal.
fixed output.
Ease of The controller is Controller is difficult
Construction easy to construct. to construct as it is
complex.
Cost Cheap Expensive
Bandwidth Small Bandwidth Large Bandwidth
Maintenance Low Maintenance More Maintenance is
required.
Feedback There is no Feedback is always
Feedback present.

Block Diagram Reduction technique

Need for Block Diagram Reduction:- Some of the block diagrams are complex, such that the evaluation of
their performance required simplification (or reduction) of the block diagrams which is done by the block
diagram rearrangements.
Advantages of Block Diagram reduction

Its very simple to construct the block diagram for complicated systems.
Single, as well as the overall performance of the system, can be studied by using transfer functions
shown in the block diagram.
Overall closed loop transfer function can be calculated easily using block diagram laws.
The function of the individual element can be visualized with the help of block diagram.

Components of Linear Time Invariant Systems

Rules of Block Diagram reduction Technique

Cascade series Connection

Parallel Connection

Block Diagram Algebra for Summing Junctions

Block Diagram Algebra for Branch Point

Basic Rule For Block Diagram Transformation
Meson's Gain Formula

The objectives for this technical note are:

Define the key terms describing signal-flow graphs.

Draw signal flow graphs for a block diagram.
Draw a block diagram from a signal-flow graph.
List down the steps in the process to solve a system using Mason’s gain formula.
Apply Mason’s gain formula to systems in block-diagram or signal-flow-graph form.

Basic Definition Related to Meson's Gain Formula

Forward paths: Forward paths are continuous paths through the graph from the input to the output. No
node is passed more than once.
Feedback loops: Feedback loops are continuous paths through the graph that starts and end at the same
node.
Path gain: Path gain is the product of the signal gains encountered on the path.
Loop gain: Loop gain is the product of signal gains encountered in a feedback loop.
Source node: Source nodes are nodes with only outgoing branches.
 Sink nodes: Sink nodes are nodes with only incoming branches.

Mesons gain Formula Statement

PK represents the path gain for the kth forward path.

Δ =1-(∑ Sum of all individual loop gains) +(∑ sum of products of all pairs of loop gains,(non-touching
loops) )- (∑ sum of products of all triples of loop gains,(Non-touching loops))+ ...
Δk = Δ-(∑ loop gains in Δ that touch forward path k)

Linear System: Essentially a Linear system is one which follows the principle
of Superposition & Homogeneity in their response to the system.

Consider a system with the input f(t) and output x(t)

Now if the input is changed to g(t), the output is y(t)

If the system is linear, then an input of h(t)=g(t)+f(t) yields an output z(t)=x(t)+y(t)

Example of a nonlinear system: Now consider the same situation when the system is nonlinear for
example a squaring function.

Now we can not find the output to the complex function h(t) by adding the responses of the systems to the
simpler function.
 Time-Invariant: In the time-invariant system, the physical parameters of the system do not change
with time. The classic example of a non-time invariant (or time variant) system is a rocket whose mass
changes with time (a time-invariant rocket would have constant mass).
Continuous-Time: The Continuous-time systems are time is a continuous, or real-valued, variable. On
the other hand, discrete-time systems have time that moves in discrete steps.

Examples of discrete-time systems include weekly closing stock prices (updated weekly), the sound on a
standard audio CD (updated 44,100 times per second).

Analogous System

An analogous electrical and mechanical system has differential equations of the same kind. There are two
analogies that are used to go between the electrical and mechanical systems.

To understand the analogy more clearly. The parameters for the mechanical analogous are formed by
substituting the analogous parameters into the equations for the electrical elements. For example, by Ohm's
law for electrical circuit e=iR. For the Mechanical analog I, e is replaced by v, I by f and R by 1/B, which yields
v=f/B.
Force-Current 'F-I' Analogy (Electrical to Mechanical)

Kirchoff's Current Law and D'Alemberts Law (with inertial forces included) are helpful for converting a electrical
circuit to the mechanical system.
Procedure for Conversion from Electrical to Mechanical.

Start with an electrical circuit. Label all node voltages.

Write a node equations for each node voltage.
Rewrite the equations using analogous making substitutions from the table, with each electrical node
being replaced by a position.
Draw the mechanical system that interconnects with the equations.

Example: Draw the mechanical equivalent circuit of the given system.

Solution: By following the steps in given Procedure

Alternative method: Another way from electrical to mechanical simply redrawing the electrical circuit using
mechanical components.

Draw over the circuit, replacing electrical elements with their analogous; voltage sources by input
velocities, current sources replaced by force generators, resistors with friction elements, inductors with
springs, and capacitors (which must be grounded) by masses. Each node becomes a position (or
velocity)
Label positions, currents, and the mechanical elements as they were in original electrical circuits.
Force-Current 'F-I' to Electrical to Mechanical

The procedure for Mechanical to Electrical analogy is simply the reverse of Electrical to Mechanical analogy.
Either a mathematical method can be used as in the previous example, Electrical to Mechanical conversion
can be understand by reading the table from bottom to top, or by the method where force generators are
replaced by current sources, friction elements by resistors, springs by inductors, and masses by capacitors
(which are grounded). Each position becomes a node in the circuit.

Procedure for 'F-I' analogy for Electrical to Mechanical Conversion

Start with the mechanical system. Label all positions.

Draw the circuit by replacing mechanical elements with their analogous; force generators by current
sources, input velocities by voltage sources, friction elements by resistors, springs by inductors, and
masses by capacitors (which are grounded). Each position becomes a node.
Label the nodes and electrical elements as they were in the original mechanical system.
Force-Voltage 'F-V' Analogy (From Electrical to Mechanical)

The important relationship when converting from a circuit to the Mechanical analog is that between Kirchoff's
Voltage Law and D'Alemberts Law (with inertial forces included).

Procedure for Conversion from Electrical to Mechanical

Start with an electrical circuit. Label all currents. Choose the currents so that only one current flow
through the inductors.
Write a loop equations for each loop.
Rewrite the equations using analogs, making substitutions from the table, with each electrical loop being
replaced by a position.
Draw the mechanical system that interconnects with the equations.

Example: Draw the Mechanical

equivalent system of the Electrical Circuit.

Solution: By following the procedure given for force voltage analogy.

Rotating Mechanical Systems

Gear System
Gear system performs many functions, here we look at the gears that increase or decrease angular velocity
(while simultaneously decreasing or increasing torque, such that energy is conserved).

If we consider two gears in equilibrium and in contact with each other, we can obtain very useful
relationships.

First, we note the geometric relationship that concludes from the path that the arc lengths along their
circumference must be equal to the gears turn.

Since the arc lengths (shown with a heavy blue line) must be equal ⇒ arc length⇒ r1θ1 = r2θ2 arc length

Now we can derive the second relationship from a torque balance. Here we must define a force between
the gears termed a "contact force."This force must be equal and opposite across the interface between
the two gears, but its direction is arbitrary.

Since the contact force is tangent to both gears and so produces a torque equal to the radius times of the
force.

We can have a torque balance on each of the two gears

For Gear 1: torque T1 = fcr1 or fc = T1/r1 & For Gear 2: torque T2 = fcr2 or fc = T2/r2

From the above two equation we concluded that fc = T1/r1 = T2/r2

In the system below, a torque (Ta), is applied to gear 1 (with a moment of inertia J1). It, in turn, is
connected to gear 2 (with a moment of inertia J2) and a rotational friction Br. The angle θ1 is defined as
positive clockwise, θ2 is also defined as positive clockwise. The torque acts in the direction of θ1.
 We start by drawing free body diagrams, including a contact force that we will arbitrarily choose to be
down on J1 and up on J2. The directions of the reactive forces due to inertia and friction are chosen, and
as always, opposite to the defined positive direction.

This yields the two equations of motion

Ta + fcr1 - J1θ1 =0

fcr2-J2θ2 +Brθ2 = 0

We can easily solve for fc and eliminate it from the above equations, but we also need to eliminate θ2. To
do this, we use relationship between θ1 and θ2 (from equal arc lengths).

r1θ1 = -r2θ2

Note that we have a negative sign here because of the way θ1 and θ2 were defined (if θ1 moves in the
positive direction, then θ2 is negative). When you use the arc length expression, you must be careful of
the signs.

fcr2-J2θ2 - Brθ2 = 0

and θ2 = - r1/r2(θ1)

we can we write it as fcr2-J2{r1/r2(θ1)} =0

fc = -J2{r1/(r2)2}θ1 - Br {r1/(r2)2}θ1

We can put this into the equation for J1 and solve (in standard form with the output (θ1) on the left, and the
input (Ta) on the right.

Ta + fcr1 - J1θ1 =0

or Ta +[-J2{r1/(r2)2}θ1 - Br {r1/(r2)2}θ1r1] - J1θ1 =0

or {J1+ J2(r1/r2)2}θ1 + Br(r1/r2)2}θ1 = Ta

So we get θ1 = r2/r1(θ2) & ω1 = r2/r1(ω2)

& Since from the relation T1= r1/r2(T2)

we concluded that

T1ω1 = {r1/r2(τ2)}{r2/r1(ω2)} = T2ω2

T1ω1 =T2ω2

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In this article, you will find the study notes on Transfer Function & Concept of Pole Zero configuration
which will cover the topics such as Analysis of Transfer Function for different types of Systems, Concept of
Location of Poles & Zeros of the System, Effect of adding Pole & zero to the System.
Transfer Function

The Transfer Function (TF) of a System is the ratio of the output to the input of a system, in the Laplace
domain considering its initial conditions and equilibrium point to be zero.

If we have an input function of X(s), and an output function Y(s), we define the transfer function H(s).

Impulse Response

Since we know that in the time domain, generally, we define the input to a system as x(t), and the output of the
system as y(t).The relationship between the input and the output is represented as the impulse response, h(t).

We can use the following equation to define the impulse response:

The Impulse Function, denoted with δ(t) is a function defined piece-wise as follows

An examination of the impulse function shows that it is related to the unit-step function as follows

u(t)= ∫δ(t) or

The impulse response (IR) must always satisfy the following condition, or else it is not a true impulse
function

Convolution in Time Domain

If we have the system input and the impulse response of the system, we can calculate the system output using
the convolution operation as such as

y(t)=h(t)∗x(t).
Time-Invariant System Response

If the system is time-invariant, then the general description of the system can be replaced by a convolution
integral of the system's impulse response and the system input.We can call this the convolution description of
a system.

Convolution Theorem

Convolution in the time domain turns into multiplication in the complex Laplace domain.
Multiplication in the time domain turns into convolution in the complex Laplace domain.

L[f(t)∗g(t)]=F(s)G(s)

L[f(t)g(t)]=F(s)∗G(s)

Result: If the complex Laplace variable is s, then we generally denote the transfer function of a system as
either G(s) or H(s). If the system input is X(s), and the system output is Y(s), then the transfer function can be
defined as such

So if we know the input to a given system, and we have the transfer function of the system, we can solve
for the system output by multiplying as

Y(s)=H(s)X(s)
Example: Impulse Response

Since we know that the Laplace transform of the impulse function, δ(t) is L[δ(t)]=1
So, when we put this into the relationship between the input, output, and transfer function, we get

Y(s)=X(s)H(s)

or Y(s)=(1)H(s)

or Y(s)=H(s)

In other words, the "impulse response" is the o/p of the system when we input an impulse function.

Transfer Functions for Linear Systems

Consider a linear input/output system described by the controlled differential equation

where u is the input and y are the output.

 To obtain the transfer function of the system of last equation let us input be u(t) = est.
Since the system is linear, there is an output of the system that is also an exponential function ⇒ y(t) =
Yoest.
Inserting the signals into last equation ,we find

(sn +a1sn−1 +···+an)yo.est = (bosm +b1sm−1···+bm)e−st

And the response of the system can be completely described as

a(s) = sn +a1sn−1 +···+an & b(s) = bosm +b1sm−1 +···+bm

So the transfer function of the given function is given by

Transfer Function Alternative Method

To investigate how a linear system responds to the exponential input u(t) = est we consider the state space
system

Let the input signal be u(t) = est and assume that s ≠ λi(A), where i = 1,...,n, where λi(A) is the ith eigenvalue
of A. then

Since s ≠ λ(A) the integral can be evaluated and we get

& Output y(t) = Cx(t) + Du(t)

= CeAt{x(0)−(sI −A)−1B}+[D+C(sI−A)−1B]est

Note: One term of the output is proportional to the input u(t) = est. This term is called the pure exponential
response.

If the initial state is chosen as x(0) = (sI −A)−1B

the output only consists of the only exponential response and both the state and the output are directly
proportional to the input

x(t) = (sI −A)−1Best = (sI −A)−1Bu(t)

y(t) = [C(sI −A)−1B+D]est = [C(sI−A)−1B+D]u(t).

 The ratio of the output and the input

G(s) = C(sI −A)−1B +D is the transfer function of the system.

For Homogeneous Equation i.e; D=0 then

G(s) = C(sI −A)−1B is the transfer function of the system.

The Concept of Pole & Zero

Poles and Zeros of a transfer function are the frequencies for which the value of the transfer function
becomes infinity or zero respectively.
The transfer function has many useful explanations and the features of a transfer function are often
associated with important system properties. Three of the most important features are the gain and the
locations of the poles and zeros.

In the above equation, N(s) and D(s) are simple polynomials in s. Zeros are the roots of N(s) by
setting N(s)=0 and solving for s. Poles are the roots of D(s), by setting D(s)=0 and solving for s.
In general Transfer Function must not have more zeros than poles, we can state that the polynomial
order of D(s) must be greater than or equal to the polynomial order of N(s).

Effects of Poles and Zeros

when s approaches a zero (Zeros of Transfer function), the numerator of the transfer function N(s)→0.
When s approaches a pole (Poles of Transfer Function) the denominator of the transfer
function D(s)→0 & the value of the transfer function approaches infinity.
An output value of infinity should raise an alarm bell for people who are familiar with BIBO stability.
Poles & Zeros of a transfer function are represented in S-Plane, In s-plane s = σ±jω where σ represent
the attenuation on X-axis & ω represents the angular velocity represented on the y-axis.
In s-plane, the Poles are located by a cross (*) & the Zeros are located by dot (.)

For a Stable System, All the Poles & Zeros of a Transfer Function must be lie in the left half of s-plane.
Note: If the Poles or Zero lie on the imaginary axis then it must be simple (order only 1) then the system is
said to be Marginally Stable, If the Order of multiplicity of Poles or Zeros on Imaginary Axis is more than 1 in
that case system will become Unstable.

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In this article, you will find the study notes on Time Domain analysis which will cover the topics such
as Different Types of Input Signals, Time Response of Ist Order System,Time Response of Second
Order System, Overdamped System Underdamped System, Undamped System & Critically Damped
System,
Time Domain Analysis
The Time Domain Analyzes of the system is to be done on basis of time. The analysis is only be applied when
nature of input plus mathematical model of the control system is known. Expressing the main input signals is
not an easy task and cannot be determined by simple equations. There are two components of any system’s
time response, which are: Transient response & Steady state response.

Transient Response: This response is dependent upon the system poles only and not on the type of
input & it is sufficient to analyze the transient response using a step input.
Steady-State Response: This response depends on system dynamics and the input quantity. It is then
examined using different test signals by final value theorem.

Standard Test Input Signals

Time-Response of First-Order System

Here consider the armature-controlled dc motor driving a load, such as a video tape.The objective is to drive
the tape at a constant speed. Note that it is an open-loop system.
 ωss(t) is the steady-state final speed.If the desired speed is ωr, choosing 'a=ωr/k1km' the motor will
eventually reach the desired speed.

From the time response e-t/τm we concluded that for t≥5τm the value of e-t/τm is less than 1% of its
original value.Hence the speed of the motor will reach and stay within 1% of its final speed at 5 time
constants.

Let us now consider the closed-loop system

If r(t) = a then Response would be ; w(t) = ak1ko- ak1koe-t/τo

If a is properly chosen, the tape can reach a desired speed.It will reach the desired speed in 5τo seconds.
Here τo=τm.So that we can control the speed of response in the feedback system.

Ramp response of first-order system

 ess(t)= τo

Thus, the first-order system will track the unit ramp input with a steady-state error τo, which is equal to
the time-constant of the system.
Time-Response of Second-Order System

Consider the antenna position control system. Its transfer function from r to y is,

where we can define

(ωn)2 = k1k2km/τm ; & 2ξωn = 1/τm

The constant ξ is called the damping ratio and ωn is called the natural frequency. The system above is, in fact,
a standard second order system.

The transfer function T(s) has two poles and no zero. Its poles are,

Natural frequency (ωn): The natural frequency of a second order system is the frequency of oscillation of the
system without damping.

Damping ratio (ξ): The damping ratio is defined as the ratio of the damping factor σ, to the natural
frequency ωn.

Here,σ is called the damping factor,ωd is called damped or actual frequency.The location of poles for
different ξ are plotted in the given figure below. Forξ=0, the two poles ±jωn are purely imaginary. If0<ξ<1, the
two poles are complex conjugate.

Unit Step Response of Second-Order System

Second-Order Systems: General Specification

second order system exhibits a wide range of responses that must be analyzed and described. To become
familiar with the wide range of responses before formalizing our discussion, we take a look at numerical
examples of the second order system responses shown in the figure.

Underdamped Response (0<ξ<1)

This function has a pole at the origin that comes from the unit step and two complex poles that come from the
system.The sinusoidal frequency is given the name of damped frequency
of oscillation, ωd. This response shown in figure called underdamped.
Example:

Overdamped System (1<ξ)

This function has a pole at the origin that comes from the unit step input and two real poles that come from
the system.The input pole at the origin generates the constant forced response; each of two system poles on
the real axis generates an exponential natural frequency.

Example:

Undamped Response (ξ= 0)

This function has a pole at the origin and two imaginary poles. The pole at the origin generates the constant
forced response, and the two system poles on the imaginary axis at ±j3 generate a Sinusoidal natural
response.

Example:
 Critically Damped Response (ξ = 1)

This function has a pole at the origin and two multiple real poles. The input pole at the origin generates the
constant forced response, and two poles at the real axis at -3 generate a natural exponential response.

Note: In the above specifications of time domain, don't be confused with the number of Poles in G(s),
to Specify for which type of Damping is present for a particular case we consider the total number of
poles are of transfer function i.e; C(s)/R(s).

Summarization: Here once again we summarize the second order damping functions as;
Time Domain Characteristics

In specifying the Transient-Response characteristics of a control system to a unit step input, we usually specify
the following:
Delay time ( td ): It is the time required for the response to reach 50% of the final value in first attempt.
Rise time, ( tr ): It is the time required for the response to rise from 0 to 100% of the final value for the
underdamped system.
Peak time, ( tp ): It is the time required for the response to reach the peak of time response or the peak
overshoot.
Settling time, ( ts ): It is the time required for the response to reach and stay within a specified tolerance
band ( 2% or 5%) of its final value.
Peak overshoot ( Mp): It is the normalized difference between the time response peak and the steady
output and is defined as

Steady-state error ( ess ): It indicates the error between the actual output and desired output as ‘t’ tends
to infinity.
Steady-state error ess: It is found previously that steady-state error for step input is zero. Let us now
consider ramp input, r(t)= tu(t).

Therefore, the steady-state error due to ramp input is 2ξ/ωn.

Effect of Adding a Zero to a System:

If we add a zero at s = -z be added to a second order system. Then we have,

The multiplication term is adjusted to make the steady-state gain of the system unity.

Manipulation of the above equation gives,

The effect of added derivative term is to produce a pronounced early peak to the system response.

Closer the zero to the origin, the more pronounce the peaking phenomenon.
Due to this fact, the zeros on the real axis near the origin are generally avoided in design. However, in a
sluggish system the artful introduction of a zero at the proper position can improve the transient
response.
Types of Feedback Control System:

The open-loop transfer function of a system can be written as

If n = 0, the system is called type-0 system, if n = 1, the system is called type-1 system, if n = 2, the
system is called type-2 system, etc.

Steady-State Error and Error Constants:

The steady-state performance of a stable control system is generally judged by its steady-state error to step,
ramp and parabolic inputs. For a unity feedback system,

It is seen that steady-state error depends upon the input R(s) and the forward transfer function G(s).
Candidates can practice 150+ Mock Tests with Gradeup Green Card for exams like GATE, ESE, NIELIT from
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In this article, you will find the study notes on Time Domain analysis which will cover the topics such
as Different Types of Input Signals, Time Response of Ist Order System,Time Response of Second
Order System, Overdamped System Underdamped System, Undamped System & Critically Damped
System,
Time Domain Analysis

The Time Domain Analyzes of the system is to be done on basis of time. The analysis is only be applied when
nature of input plus mathematical model of the control system is known. Expressing the main input signals is
not an easy task and cannot be determined by simple equations. There are two components of any system’s
time response, which are: Transient response & Steady state response.

Transient Response: This response is dependent upon the system poles only and not on the type of
input & it is sufficient to analyze the transient response using a step input.
Steady-State Response: This response depends on system dynamics and the input quantity. It is then
examined using different test signals by final value theorem.
Standard Test Input Signals

Time-Response of First-Order System

Here consider the armature-controlled dc motor driving a load, such as a video tape.The objective is to drive
the tape at a constant speed. Note that it is an open-loop system.

ωss(t) is the steady-state final speed.If the desired speed is ωr, choosing 'a=ωr/k1km' the motor will
eventually reach the desired speed.
 From the time response e-t/τm we concluded that for t≥5τm the value of e-t/τm is less than 1% of its
original value.Hence the speed of the motor will reach and stay within 1% of its final speed at 5 time
constants.

Let us now consider the closed-loop system

If r(t) = a then Response would be ; w(t) = ak1ko- ak1koe-t/τo

If a is properly chosen, the tape can reach a desired speed.It will reach the desired speed in 5τo seconds.
Here τo=τm.So that we can control the speed of response in the feedback system.

Ramp response of first-order system

 ess(t)= τo

Thus, the first-order system will track the unit ramp input with a steady-state error τo, which is equal to
the time-constant of the system.
Time-Response of Second-Order System

Consider the antenna position control system. Its transfer function from r to y is,

where we can define

(ωn)2 = k1k2km/τm ; & 2ξωn = 1/τm

The constant ξ is called the damping ratio and ωn is called the natural frequency. The system above is, in fact,
a standard second order system.

The transfer function T(s) has two poles and no zero. Its poles are,

Natural frequency (ωn): The natural frequency of a second order system is the frequency of oscillation of the
system without damping.

Damping ratio (ξ): The damping ratio is defined as the ratio of the damping factor σ, to the natural
frequency ωn.

Here,σ is called the damping factor,ωd is called damped or actual frequency.The location of poles for
different ξ are plotted in the given figure below. Forξ=0, the two poles ±jωn are purely imaginary. If0<ξ<1, the
two poles are complex conjugate.

Unit Step Response of Second-Order System

Second-Order Systems: General Specification

second order system exhibits a wide range of responses that must be analyzed and described. To become
familiar with the wide range of responses before formalizing our discussion, we take a look at numerical
examples of the second order system responses shown in the figure.

Underdamped Response (0<ξ<1)

This function has a pole at the origin that comes from the unit step and two complex poles that come from the
system.The sinusoidal frequency is given the name of damped frequency
of oscillation, ωd. This response shown in figure called underdamped.
Example:

Overdamped System (1<ξ)

This function has a pole at the origin that comes from the unit step input and two real poles that come from
the system.The input pole at the origin generates the constant forced response; each of two system poles on
the real axis generates an exponential natural frequency.

Example:

Undamped Response (ξ= 0)

This function has a pole at the origin and two imaginary poles. The pole at the origin generates the constant
forced response, and the two system poles on the imaginary axis at ±j3 generate a Sinusoidal natural
response.

Example:
 Critically Damped Response (ξ = 1)

This function has a pole at the origin and two multiple real poles. The input pole at the origin generates the
constant forced response, and two poles at the real axis at -3 generate a natural exponential response.

Note: In the above specifications of time domain, don't be confused with the number of Poles in G(s),
to Specify for which type of Damping is present for a particular case we consider the total number of
poles are of transfer function i.e; C(s)/R(s).

Summarization: Here once again we summarize the second order damping functions as;
Time Domain Characteristics

In specifying the Transient-Response characteristics of a control system to a unit step input, we usually specify
the following:
Delay time ( td ): It is the time required for the response to reach 50% of the final value in first attempt.
Rise time, ( tr ): It is the time required for the response to rise from 0 to 100% of the final value for the
underdamped system.
Peak time, ( tp ): It is the time required for the response to reach the peak of time response or the peak
overshoot.
Settling time, ( ts ): It is the time required for the response to reach and stay within a specified tolerance
band ( 2% or 5%) of its final value.
Peak overshoot ( Mp): It is the normalized difference between the time response peak and the steady
output and is defined as

Steady-state error ( ess ): It indicates the error between the actual output and desired output as ‘t’ tends
to infinity.
Steady-state error ess: It is found previously that steady-state error for step input is zero. Let us now
consider ramp input, r(t)= tu(t).

Therefore, the steady-state error due to ramp input is 2ξ/ωn.

Effect of Adding a Zero to a System:

If we add a zero at s = -z be added to a second order system. Then we have,

The multiplication term is adjusted to make the steady-state gain of the system unity.

Manipulation of the above equation gives,

The effect of added derivative term is to produce a pronounced early peak to the system response.
Closer the zero to the origin, the more pronounce the peaking phenomenon.
Due to this fact, the zeros on the real axis near the origin are generally avoided in design. However, in a
sluggish system the artful introduction of a zero at the proper position can improve the transient
response.
Types of Feedback Control System:

The open-loop transfer function of a system can be written as

If n = 0, the system is called type-0 system, if n = 1, the system is called type-1 system, if n = 2, the
system is called type-2 system, etc.

Steady-State Error and Error Constants:

The steady-state performance of a stable control system is generally judged by its steady-state error to step,
ramp and parabolic inputs. For a unity feedback system,

It is seen that steady-state error depends upon the input R(s) and the forward transfer function G(s).
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In this article, you will find the study notes on Time Domain analysis which will cover the topics such
as Different Types of Input Signals, Time Response of Ist Order System,Time Response of Second
Order System, Overdamped System Underdamped System, Undamped System & Critically Damped
System,
Time Domain Analysis

The Time Domain Analyzes of the system is to be done on basis of time. The analysis is only be applied when
nature of input plus mathematical model of the control system is known. Expressing the main input signals is
not an easy task and cannot be determined by simple equations. There are two components of any system’s
time response, which are: Transient response & Steady state response.

Transient Response: This response is dependent upon the system poles only and not on the type of
input & it is sufficient to analyze the transient response using a step input.
Steady-State Response: This response depends on system dynamics and the input quantity. It is then
examined using different test signals by final value theorem.
Standard Test Input Signals

Time-Response of First-Order System

Here consider the armature-controlled dc motor driving a load, such as a video tape.The objective is to drive
the tape at a constant speed. Note that it is an open-loop system.

ωss(t) is the steady-state final speed.If the desired speed is ωr, choosing 'a=ωr/k1km' the motor will
eventually reach the desired speed.
 From the time response e-t/τm we concluded that for t≥5τm the value of e-t/τm is less than 1% of its
original value.Hence the speed of the motor will reach and stay within 1% of its final speed at 5 time
constants.

Let us now consider the closed-loop system

If r(t) = a then Response would be ; w(t) = ak1ko- ak1koe-t/τo

If a is properly chosen, the tape can reach a desired speed.It will reach the desired speed in 5τo seconds.
Here τo=τm.So that we can control the speed of response in the feedback system.

Ramp response of first-order system

 ess(t)= τo

Thus, the first-order system will track the unit ramp input with a steady-state error τo, which is equal to
the time-constant of the system.
Time-Response of Second-Order System

Consider the antenna position control system. Its transfer function from r to y is,

where we can define

(ωn)2 = k1k2km/τm ; & 2ξωn = 1/τm

The constant ξ is called the damping ratio and ωn is called the natural frequency. The system above is, in fact,
a standard second order system.

The transfer function T(s) has two poles and no zero. Its poles are,

Natural frequency (ωn): The natural frequency of a second order system is the frequency of oscillation of the
system without damping.

Damping ratio (ξ): The damping ratio is defined as the ratio of the damping factor σ, to the natural
frequency ωn.

Here,σ is called the damping factor,ωd is called damped or actual frequency.The location of poles for
different ξ are plotted in the given figure below. Forξ=0, the two poles ±jωn are purely imaginary. If0<ξ<1, the
two poles are complex conjugate.

Unit Step Response of Second-Order System

Second-Order Systems: General Specification

second order system exhibits a wide range of responses that must be analyzed and described. To become
familiar with the wide range of responses before formalizing our discussion, we take a look at numerical
examples of the second order system responses shown in the figure.

Underdamped Response (0<ξ<1)

This function has a pole at the origin that comes from the unit step and two complex poles that come from the
system.The sinusoidal frequency is given the name of damped frequency
of oscillation, ωd. This response shown in figure called underdamped.
Example:

Overdamped System (1<ξ)

This function has a pole at the origin that comes from the unit step input and two real poles that come from
the system.The input pole at the origin generates the constant forced response; each of two system poles on
the real axis generates an exponential natural frequency.

Example:

Undamped Response (ξ= 0)

This function has a pole at the origin and two imaginary poles. The pole at the origin generates the constant
forced response, and the two system poles on the imaginary axis at ±j3 generate a Sinusoidal natural
response.

Example:
 Critically Damped Response (ξ = 1)

This function has a pole at the origin and two multiple real poles. The input pole at the origin generates the
constant forced response, and two poles at the real axis at -3 generate a natural exponential response.

Note: In the above specifications of time domain, don't be confused with the number of Poles in G(s),
to Specify for which type of Damping is present for a particular case we consider the total number of
poles are of transfer function i.e; C(s)/R(s).

Summarization: Here once again we summarize the second order damping functions as;
Time Domain Characteristics

In specifying the Transient-Response characteristics of a control system to a unit step input, we usually specify
the following:
Delay time ( td ): It is the time required for the response to reach 50% of the final value in first attempt.
Rise time, ( tr ): It is the time required for the response to rise from 0 to 100% of the final value for the
underdamped system.
Peak time, ( tp ): It is the time required for the response to reach the peak of time response or the peak
overshoot.
Settling time, ( ts ): It is the time required for the response to reach and stay within a specified tolerance
band ( 2% or 5%) of its final value.
Peak overshoot ( Mp): It is the normalized difference between the time response peak and the steady
output and is defined as

Steady-state error ( ess ): It indicates the error between the actual output and desired output as ‘t’ tends
to infinity.
Steady-state error ess: It is found previously that steady-state error for step input is zero. Let us now
consider ramp input, r(t)= tu(t).

Therefore, the steady-state error due to ramp input is 2ξ/ωn.

Effect of Adding a Zero to a System:

If we add a zero at s = -z be added to a second order system. Then we have,

The multiplication term is adjusted to make the steady-state gain of the system unity.

Manipulation of the above equation gives,

The effect of added derivative term is to produce a pronounced early peak to the system response.
Closer the zero to the origin, the more pronounce the peaking phenomenon.
Due to this fact, the zeros on the real axis near the origin are generally avoided in design. However, in a
sluggish system the artful introduction of a zero at the proper position can improve the transient
response.
Types of Feedback Control System:

The open-loop transfer function of a system can be written as

If n = 0, the system is called type-0 system, if n = 1, the system is called type-1 system, if n = 2, the
system is called type-2 system, etc.

Steady-State Error and Error Constants:

The steady-state performance of a stable control system is generally judged by its steady-state error to step,
ramp and parabolic inputs. For a unity feedback system,

It is seen that steady-state error depends upon the input R(s) and the forward transfer function G(s).
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In previous article we have studied the the Basic Concept of Time Domain Analysis In this article we will
discuss the rest part of this area of Control System,you will find the study notes on Time Domain analysis-
2 which will cover the topics such as Time Domain Characteristics, Effect of Adding a Zero to a
System, Types of Feedback Control System & Steady-State Error and Error Constants.
Time Domain Characteristics

In specifying the Transient-Response characteristics of a control system to a unit step input, we usually specify
the following:
 Delay time ( td ): It is the time required for the response to reach 50% of the final value in first attempt.

The expression of delay time, td for second order system is:

Rise time, ( tr ): It is the time required for the response to rise from 0 to 100% of the final value for the
under-damped system.

The expression of rise time, tr for second order system is:

Peak time, ( tp ): It is the time required for the response to reach the peak of time response or the peak
overshoot.

The expression of peak time, tp for second order system is:

 Settling time, ( ts ): It is the time required for the response to reach and stay within a specified tolerance
band ( 2% or 5%) of its final value.

The expression of settling time, ts for second order system is:

Peak overshoot ( Mp): It is the normalized difference between the time response peak and the steady
output and is defined as

The expression of peak overshoot, Mp for second order system is:

Steady-state error ( ess ): It indicates the error between the actual output and desired output as ‘t’ tends
to infinity.
Effect of Adding a Zero to a System:

If we add a zero at s = -z be added to a second order system. Then we have,

The multiplication term is adjusted to make the steady-state gain of the system unity.

Manipulation of the above equation gives,

The effect of added derivative term is to produce a pronounced early peak to the system response.
Closer the zero to the origin, the more pronounce the peaking phenomenon.
Due to this fact, the zeros on the real axis near the origin are generally avoided in design. However, in a
sluggish system the artful introduction of a zero at the proper position can improve the transient
response.
Types of Feedback Control System:

The open-loop transfer function of a system can be written as

If n = 0, the system is called type-0 system, if n = 1, the system is called type-1 system, if n = 2, the
system is called type-2 system, etc.

Steady-State Error and Error Constants:

The steady-state performance of a stable control system is generally judged by its steady-state error to step,
ramp and parabolic inputs. For a unity feedback system,

Where,

E(s) is error signal

R(s) is input signal

G(s) H(s) is the open loop transfer function

It is seen that steady-state error depends upon the input R(s) and the forward transfer function G(s).

1. If input is unit step i.e R(t) = u(t)

2. If input is unit ramp i.e R(t) = tu(t)

3. If input is unit parabolic i.e R(t) = 0.5tu(t)

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In this article, you will find the study notes on Feedback Principle & Root Locus Technique which will cover
the topics such as Characteristics of Closed Loop Control System, Positive & Negative Feedback, &
Root Locus Technique.

In a feedback control system, at least part of the information used to change the output variable is derived
from measurements performed on the output variable itself. This type of closed-loop control is often used in
preference to open-loop control (where the system does not use output-variable information to influence its
output) since feedback can reduce the sensitivity of the system to externally applied disturbances and to
changes in system parameters.
Familiar examples of feedback control systems include residential heating systems, most high-fidelity audio
amplifiers, and the iris-retina combination that regulates light entering the eye.

Closed loop control system:

 Sometimes, we may use the output of the control system to adjust the input signal. This is called
feedback. Feedback is a special feature of a closed loop control system.
A closed-loop control system compares the output with the expected result or command status, then it
takes appropriate control actions to adjust the input signal.
Therefore, a closed-loop system is always equipped with a sensor, which is used to monitor the output
and compare it with the expected result.

The following figure shows a simple closed loop system.

The output signal is feedback to the input to produce a new output.

A well-designed feedback system can often increase the accuracy of the output.

Block diagram of a closed loop control system

Feedback can be divided into positive feedback and negative feedback.

Positive Feedback:

Positive feedback causes the new output to deviate from the present command status.
For example, an amplifier is put next to a microphone, so the input volume will keep increasing, resulting
in a very high output volume.

Negative Feedback:

Negative feedback directs the new output towards the present command status, so as to allow more
sophisticated control.
For example, a driver has to steer continuously to keep his car on the right track.

Most modern appliances and machinery are equipped with closed loop control systems. Examples include air
conditioners, refrigerators, automatic rice cookers, automatic ticketing machines, etc. An air conditioner, for
example, uses a thermostat to detect the temperature and control the operation of its electrical parts to keep
the room temperature at a preset constant.

Block diagram of the control system of an air conditioner

 One advantage of using the closed loop control system is that it is able to adjust its output automatically
by feeding the output signal back to the input.
When the load changes, the error signals generated by the system will adjust the output. However,
closed loop control systems are generally more complicated and thus more expensive to make.
A feedback is a common and powerful tool when designing a control system.
Feedback loop is the tool which take the system output into consideration and enables the system to
adjust its performance to meet a desired result of system.

In any control system, output is affected due to change in environmental condition or any kind of disturbance.
So one signal is taken from output and is fed back to the input. This signal is compared with reference input
and then error signal is generated. This error signal is applied to controller and output is corrected. Such a
system is called feedback system.

When feedback signal is positive then system called positive feedback system. For positive feedback
system, the error signal is the addition of reference input signal and feedback signal.
When feedback signal is negative then system is called negative feedback system. For negative
feedback system, the error signal is given by difference of reference input signal and feedback signal.

Feedback characteristics: Including feedback into the control of a system results in the following.

Advantages:

Increased accuracy . The output can be made to reproduce the input

Reduced sensitivity to system characteristics
Reduction in effect of non-linearities
Increased bandwidth. The system can be made to respond to a larger range of input frequencies.

The major disadvantages resulting from feedback are the increase risk of instability and the additional cost of
design and implementation..

Applications of Feedback: Flight control systems, Robotics, Chemical process control, Communications &
Networks, Automotive, Biological Systems, Environmental Systems & Quantum Systems.

Rule to Draw the Root Locus Plot

Rule 1-Symmetry: Since the characteristic equation has real coefficients, any zeros must occur in complex
conjugate pairs (which are symmetric about the real axis). Since the root locus is just a diagram of the roots of
the characteristic equation as K varies, it must also be symmetric about the real axis.

Rule 2-Number of Branches: Since order of the characteristic equation is the same as that of the
denominator of the loop gain, the number of branches is n, the order of the denominator polynomial.

Rule 3- Starting and Ending Points: Start from the magnitude condition: K|N(s)/D(s)| =1

So the locus starts (when K=0) at poles of the loop gain, and ends (when K→∞) at the zeros. Note:
there are q zeros of the loop gain as s→∞.

Rule 4- Locus On The Real Axis: The locus exists on real axis to the left of an sum of number of poles
and zeros is odd on the axis.

Rule 5- Number of Branch Terminating to Infinity: If For a given system the no of Open Loop
Poles are P & the number of Open Loop Zeros are Z then there will be "P-Z" branches which are terminating
to Infinity.

Rule 6- Asymptotes Angle & Centroid: We know that if we have a characteristic equation P(s) that has more
poles (P=N) than zeros (Z=M) then "N−M" of the root locus branches tend to zeros at infinity.

These asymptotes intercept the real axis at a point, Called it Centroid σA,

Or in other word

The angles of the asymptotes φk are given by for K>0

where, q = 0, 1, 2, ..., n – m – 1.

The angles of the asymptotes φk are given by for K<0

where, q = 0, 1, 2, ..., n – m – 1.

Rule 7-Determining the Breakaway Points:

First of all we have to identify the portions of the real axis where a breakaway point must exist.
Assuming we have already marked the segments of the real axis that are on the root locus, we need to
find the segments that are the part of root locus by either two poles or two zeros (either finite zeros or
zeros at infinity).
To estimate the values of s at the breakaway points, the characteristic equation ⇒
1 + KP(s) = 0 is rewritten in terms of K as
To find the breakaway points we find the values of s corresponding to the maxima in K(s). i.e. where dK/ds =
K'(s) = 0.

As the last step we check the roots of K'(s) that lie on the real axis segments of the locus. The roots that
lie in these intervals are the breakaway points.

Rule 8- Find the angles of departure/arrival for complex poles/zeros:

Angle of departure (θd) is given by θd = 180° + arg [G(s )H(s ) where arg [G(s )H(s)] is the angle of
G(s)H(s) excluding the pole where the angle is to be calculated.
Similarly, the angle of arrival is given by θa = 180° - arg [G(s)H(s)], where arg [G(s)H(s)] is the angle
of G(s)H(s) excluding the zero, where the angle is to be calculated.
When there are complex poles or zeros of P(s), the root locus branches will either depart or arrive at an
angle θ where, for a complex pole or zero at s = p or s = z,

where

In other words

Therefore, exploiting the rules of complex numbers, we can rewrite ∠P∗ (p)and ∠P∗ (z) as

Rule 9- Intersection of the Root Locus with the jω Axis: To find the intersection of root locus with the
imaginary axis. The following procedures are followed

Step 1: Construct the characteristic equation 1+ G(s) H(s) = 0

Step 2: Develop Routh array in terms of K.

Step 3: Find Kmar that creates one of the roots of Routh array as a row of zeros.

Step 4: Frame auxiliary equation A(s) = 0 with the help of the coefficient of a row just above the row of zeros.

Step 5: The roots of the auxiliary equation A(s) = 0 for K = Kmar give the intersection points of the root locus
with the imaginary axis.

Value Gain Margin:

Grain Margin (GM) =

Note: If the root locus does not cross the jω axis, the gain is ∞. GM represents the maximum gain that can be
multiplied for the system to be just on the verge of instability.

Phase Margin: Phase margin (PM) can be determined for a given value of K as follows

Calculate ω for which |G (jω) H (jω)| = 1 for the given value of K.

Calculate [G (jω) H (jω)]
Phase margin = 180° + arg [G (jω) H (jω)]

For getting more on Root Locus find here PDF on Root Locus Techniques

Root Locus Study Notes 1

Root Locus Study Notes 2
Root Locus Study Notes 3

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In this article,you will find the study notes on Routh-Hurwitz and Various Plots which will cover the topics
such as Routh-Hurwitz Criteria, Relative Stability Analysis Special Case to Routh-Hurwitz Criteria, &
Bode Plot Technique.
Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion

The technique Routh-Hurwitz criterion is a method to know whether a linear system is stable or not by
examining the locations of the roots of the characteristic equation.The method determines only if there are
roots that lie outside of the left half plane; while it does not actually compute the roots.
Here we have a Transfer Function F(s):

where N(s) & D(s) are the Polynomials in s to know the Poles (by equating D(s)= 0) & Zeros (by equating
N(s)=0).

The Characteristic Equation of the above Transfer Function can be written as

1+G(s)H(s) = 0 ; or D(s)= ansn+an-1sn-1 + ........a1s + ao =0

To find out whether system is stable or not, check the following conditions:

1. Two necessary but not sufficient conditions that all the roots have negative real parts are

All the polynomial coefficients must have the same sign.

All the polynomial coefficients must be non-zero.

2. If condition (1) is satisfied, then compute the Routh-Hurwitz array as follows

where the ai are the polynomial coefficients, these coefficients in the rest of the table are computed as
follow:

The necessary condition that all roots have negative real parts is that all the elements of the first column
of the array have the same sign.
The number of changes of sign equals the number of roots with positive real parts.

Special Case-1: Zero First-Column Element

If the first element of a row is zero, but some other elements in that row are nonzero.Here we cans
replace the zero element by "ε", & complete the table, and then interpret the results assuming that "ε" is a
small number of the same sign as the element above it. The results must be interpreted in the limit
as ε→0

Special Case-2: If Complete Zero Row.

Whenever if all the coefficients in a row are zero, this indicate a pair of roots of equal magnitude and
opposite sign.
 Here the Possibilities of these two roots could be Real or Conjugate Imaginary with equal magnitudes
and opposite signs.
The zero row is replaced by taking the coefficients of dP(s)/ds, where P(s), called the auxiliary
polynomial, is obtained from the values in the row above the zero row. The pair of roots can be found by
solving dP(s)/ds = 0.
It is to be noted that the auxiliary polynomial always has even degree.

Example: Use of Auxiliary Polynomial

Consider the quintic equation A(s) = 0 where A(s) is

s5+2s4+24s3+48s2-50=0

Solution: The Routh array starts off as

The auxiliary polynomial P(s) will be

P(s) = 2s4 + 48s2 − 50

which shows that A(s) = 0 must have two pairs of roots of equal magnitude and opposite sign, which are also
roots of the auxiliary polynomial equation P(s) = 0.

Considering derivative of P(s) with respect to s we get ⇒ dP(s)/ds = 8s3 + 96s.

so the s3 row is as shown below and the Routh array will be

Now there is a single change of sign in the first column of the resulting array, indicating that there A(s) = 0
has one root with positive real part.

On Solving the Auxiliary Polynomial 2s4 + 48s2 − 50 = 0 it yields the remaining roots such as

s2 = 1 ⇒ s= ±1

s2 = -25 ⇒ s = ± j5
so the original equation can be factored as ⇒ (s + 1)(s − 1)(s + j5)(s − j5)(s + 2) = 0.
Relative Stability Analysis

The Routh’s stability criterion provides the answer to the question of absolute stability.This, in many
practical cases, is not sufficient. We usually require information about the relative stability of the system.
A real approach to examine relative stability is to shift the s-plane, here we substitute s = z − σ (σ =
constant) into the characteristic equation, write the polynomial in terms of z, and then apply Routh’s
stability criterion to the new polynomial in z.
The number of changes of sign in the first column of the array of Polynomial in z is equal to the number of
roots which are located to the right of the vertical line s =−σ. Thus, this test reveals the number of roots
which lie to the right of the vertical line s = −σ2
Jury Stability Test:

According to Jury stability test:

If
Then

Where

This system will be stable if

Example: Verify Jury Stability Test for the given Polynomial.

hence the system is stable.

Root-Locus Technique

The Root Locus plots are a very useful way to predict the behavior of a closed loop system as some
parameter of the system (typically a gain) is changed. Here we will show how to draw a root locus plots.

Consider a closed loop system above with unity feedback that uses simple proportional controller.

It has transfer function

 The poles occur are the roots of D(s) & is obtained from the denominator of system transfer function ⇒ 1
+ KG(s) = 0, this equation is called Characteristic equation of the system.
Therefore it is necessary that

These above two conditions are referred to as the Magnitude and Angle criteria respectively.
Bode Plot

The bode plot gives a graphical method for determining the stability of a control system based on a sinusoidal
frequency response. Bode graphs are representations of the magnitude and phase of G(j*ω) (where the
frequency vector ω contains only positive frequencies).

The bode plot consists of two graphs: Magnitude plot and Phase plot

20 log10 |G (jω)| versus logω, this is called magnitude plot.

Phase shift (in degrees) versus logω (frequency), this is called phase plot.
Bode plots are asymptotic log magnitude and phase plots. These are drawn as straight lines.
Corner frequency is the frequency at which the slope of the asymptotic log magnitude plot changes.
The frequency band from ω1 and ω2 such that (ω2/ω1) = 10 is called a decade.
For a first order factor, the slope of the Log magnitude plot changes by ±20 dB/decade at the corner
frequency according as the factor is in the numerator or denominator respectively. For a second order
factor, the slope changes by ±40 dB/decade and so on.

Initial Slope of the Bode Plot: Initial slope can be determined by the type of the system, Its value is different
for different types of system.

Type 0 system: For this systems, initial slope is 0 dB/decade with dB value 20 log K.

Type 1 system: For this system, initial part of the system is

 Type 2 system: For type 2 system, initial part of plot is

Here, the initial slope is -40 dB/decade and plot cuts the 0 dB line at

Phase Margin and Gain Margin

The PM and GM can be calculated by considering the following plot

Gain Crossover Frequency: Frequency at which magnitude plot crosses the 0 dB line.
Phase Crossover Frequency: Frequency at which phase plot crosses the -180° line
Gain Margin: Value of gain from gain plot at phase crossover frequency is called gain margin. Gain
margin is positive if it is below zero dB line
Phase Margin: Value of phase from phase plot at the gain crossover frequency is known as phase
margin. Phase margin is positive if it is above -180° line
Minimum Phase, Non-minimum Phase and All Pass Transfer Function

Minimum phase transfer function:

Non-minimum phase system:

All pass transfer functions:

If there are no poles of the transfer function at the origin, the initial slope of the LM plot is zero and the
magnitude is 20 log Kp up to the lowest corner frequency.
If there is a single pole at the origin of the open loop transfer function the LM plot has an initial slope
equal to -20 dB/decade up to the lowest corner frequency and if this line is extended, it will intersect the
frequency axis at ω = kv.
If there are two poles at the origin of the open loop transfer function, the LM plot has an initial slope equal
to -40 dB/decade up to the lowest corner frequency and this line is extended will intersect the frequency
axis at .
If there is one zero at the origin, the LM plot has an initial slope equal to 20 dB/decade up to the lowest
corner frequency. If there are two zeros at the origin, the LM plot has an initial slope equal to +40
dB/decade up to the lowest corner frequency and so on
Multiplication of the transfer function by a gain factor is equivalent to shifting the LM plot vertically up by
an equivalent gain in dB.

Effects of Addition of Poles: The effects of addition of poles are as follows

There is change in shape of the root locus and it shifts towards the imaginary axis. The intercept on the
jω axis occurs for a lower value of K because of asymptote angle being lower down.
System becomes oscillatory.
Gain margin and relative stability decrease.
There is reduction in the range of K.
A sluggish response can be changed to a quicker response for the artful introduction of a pole.
Settling time increases.

Effects of Addition of Zeros: The effects of addition of zeros are as follows

There is change in shape of the root locus and it shifts towards the left of the s-plane.
Stability of the system is enhanced.
Range of K increases.
Settling time speeds up.

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In this article, you will find the study notes on Nyquist stability Criteria & Analysis which will cover the topics
such as Nyquist Stability principle, Cauchy Principle, Concept of Encirclement & Enclosement, Nyquist
Plot, Phase Margin & Gain Margin with the help of Nyquist Plot.
Polar Plot

The polar plot of a sinusoidal transfer function G(jω) is a plot of the magnitude of G(jω) versus the phase angle
of G(jω) on polar coordinates as ω varied from zero to infinity.

Procedure to Sketch the Polar Plot:

Step-1: Determine transfer function G(jω).

Step-2: Put s = jω in the transfer function to obtain G(jω).
Step-3: At ω = 0 and m = ∞, calculate | G(jω)| by and .

Step-4: Calculate the phase angle of G(jω) at ω = 0 and ω = ∞ by and .

Step-5: Rationalize the function G(jω) and separate the real and imaginary axis.
Step-6: Equate the imaginary part Im|G(jω)| to zero and determine the frequencies at which plot
intersects the real axis and calculate the value of G(jω) at the point of intersection by substituting the
determined value of frequency in the expression of G(jω).
Step-7: Equate the real part Re|G(jω)| to zero and determine the frequencies at which plots intersects the
imaginary axis and calculate the value G(jω) at the point of intersection by substituting the determined
value of frequency in the rationalized expression of G(jω).
Step-8: Sketch the polar plot with the help of above information.

Polar Plot of Some Standard Functions:

Type 0 System
Type 1 System

Type 2 System
Introduction of Additional Pole

Polar Plot for

Polar Plot For

Gain Margin and Phase Margin with Polar Plot

 Phase Crossover Frequency: The frequency at which the polar plot crosses the -180° line is called
phase crossover frequency.
Gain Crossover Frequency: The frequency at which the polar plot crosses the unity circle is called gain
crossover frequency.
Gain Margin: At phase crossover frequency, if gain is 'a' then

Gain margin = - 20 log a

Phase Margin (φm): At gain crossover frequency, if phase is φ then phase margin

φm = 180 + φ

where, φ is positive from anti-clockwise direction.

Nyquist Stability Criterion

A stability test for time invariant linear systems can also be derived in the frequency domain. It is known
as Nyquist stability criterion. It is based on the complex analysis result known as Cauchy’s principle of
argument.Nyquist criterion is used to identify the presence of roots of a characteristic equation of a control
system in a specified region of s-plane. Nyquist approach is same as Routh-Hurwitz but, it differ with following
aspect

The open loop transfer function "G(s)H(s)" is considered instead of closed loop characteristic equation "
1+G(s) H(s) = 0".
Inspection of graphical plot of G(s) H(s) enables to get more than yes or no answer of Routh-Hurwitz
method pertaining to stability of control system.
Nyquist plots display both amplitude and phase angle on a single plot, using frequency as a parameter in
the plot.
Nyquist plots have properties that allow you to see whether a system is stable or unstable. It will take
some mathematical development to see that, but it's the most useful property of Nyquist plots.
Concept of Encirclement & Enclosement
Encirclement:

point A is encircled in the counter in Counter Clock Wise by closed path, while point B is NOT encircled
by closed path.

Enclosement: A point or region is said to be enclosed by a closed path if the point or region lies to the right of
the path when the path is traversed in any prescribed direction.

In figure (a) point A is not enclosed by Path,while Point B is enclosed by path.

In figure (b) point A is enclosed by Path, while point B is not enclosed by path.

Nyquist Stability Criterion : Fundamentals

Consider the phasor from point A to S1 of encirclement = N, the net angle traversed by the phasor = 2πN rad
 In figure (a) Point A of encirclement = +1; Point B of encirclement = +2.
In figure (b) Point A of encirclement = -1; Point B of encirclement = -2.

Determination of N:
 For a SISO feedback system the closed-loop transfer function is given by

closed-loop system poles are obtained by solving the following equation

1+G(s)H(s) =0 =Δ(s) represents the system characteristic equation.

In the following we consider the complex function

D(s) = 1+G(s)H(s)

The zeros of D(s) are the closed-loop poles of the transfer function. Here now we concluded that the
poles of D(s) are the zeros of M(s).
At the same time the poles of D(s) are the open-loop control system poles since they are contributed by
the poles of H(s)G(s), which can be considered as the open-loop control system transfer function—
obtained when the feedback loop is open at some point.
The Nyquist stability test is obtained by applying the Cauchy principle of argument to the complex
function D(s).First,we state Cauchy’s principle of argument.

Cauchy’s Principle of Argument

Let F(s) be an analytic function in a closed region of the complex s-plane, except at a finite number of
points (namely,the poles of F(s)).
It is also assumed that F(s) is analytic at every point on the contour. Then, as 's' travels around the
contour in the s-plane in the clockwise direction, the function F(s) encircles the origin in the
[ReF{(s)},Img{F(s)}]-plane in the same direction N times , where N given By

N= P-Z

where Z and P stand for the number of zeros and poles (including their multiplicities) of the function F(s)
inside the contour.

The above result can be also written as

arg{F(s)} = (Z-P)2π = 2Nπ

Nyquist Plot

The Nyquist plot is a polar plot of the function D(s) = 1+ G(s)H(s) when travels around the contour

The contour in the above figure covers the whole unstable half plane of the complex plane s, R→∞.
Since the function D(s), according to Cauchy’s principle of argument, must be analytic at every point on
the contour, the poles D(s) of on the imaginary axis must be encircled by
infinitesimally small semicircles.

Nyquist Criterion:

It states that the number of unstable closed-loop poles is equal to the number of unstable open-loop
poles plus the number of encirclements of the origin of the Nyquist plot of the complex function F(s).
The above criterion can be slightly simplified if instead of plotting the function "D(s) = 1+G(s)H(s)", we
plot only the function G(s)H(s) and count encirclement of the Nyquist plot of G(s)H(s) around the
point (-1+j0).
The number of unstable closed-loop poles (Z) is equal to the number of unstable open-loop poles (P) plus
the number of encirclements (N) of the point (-1+j0) of the Nyquist plot of G(s)H(s), that is

Z= P+N

Phase and Gain Stability Margins

Two important notions can be derived from the Nyquist diagram: phase and gain stability margins. The phase
and gain stability margins are presented in Figure below
 They give the degree of relative stability; in other words, they tell how far the given system is from the
instability region. Their formal definitions are given by

where ωgc and ωpc stand for, respectively, the gain and phase crossover frequencies, which are
obtained from the figure as

Example: Consider a control system represented by

Solution: Since this system has a pole at the origin, the contour in the -plane should encircle it with a
semicircle of an infinitesimally small radius. This contour has three parts (a), (b), and (c). Mappings for each of
them are considered below.

On this semicircle the complex variable 's' is represented in the polar form by 's = Rejψ' with R→∞, - π/2
≤ ψ ≥ π/2. Substituting 's = Rejψ' into G(s)H(s), we easily see that G(s)H(s)→0 . Thus, the huge
semicircle from the -plane maps into the origin in the -plane .

Thus, the huge semicircle from the s-plane maps into the origin in the G(s)H(s)-plane.
 On this semicircle the complex variable is represented in the polar form by 's = rejψ' with r→0, - π/2 ≤
ψ ≥ π/2. so that we have

Since φ changes from '- π/2' at point A to ' π/2' at point B, arg{G(s)H(s)} will change from "π/2 to -π/2" .
We conclude that the infinitesimally small semicircle at the origin in the s-plane is mapped into a semicircle
of infinite radius in the G(s)H(s)-plane.

On this part of the contour s takes pure imaginary values, i.e. s= jω with ω changing from'-∞ to
+∞'.Due to symmetry, it is sufficient to study only mapping along "0+≤ ω ≥+∞" . We can find the real and
imaginary parts of the function G(jω)H(jω), which are given by

From the above expressions, we see that neither the real nor the imaginary parts can be made zero, and
hence the Nyquist plot has no points of intersection with the coordinate axis. For ω= 0+ we are at point B and
since the plot at ω= +∞ will end up at the origin.Note that the vertical asymptote of the Nyquist plot is given by

{Re G(jo±)H(jo±)} = -1

From the Nyquist diagram we see that N= 0 and since there are no open-loop poles in the left half of the
complex plane, i .e.P=0, we have Z =0 so that the corresponding closed-loop system has no unstable
poles.

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In this article,you will find the study notes on Compensator & Controller which will cover the topics such
as Series Compensation,Lead-Compensator,Lag Compensator,Feedback Compensation,P,I,D,PI,PID
Controller.
Compensation Technique

In Control Engineering we generally focused on methods used to analyze the performance of a feedback
system with a given set of parameters. The results of such analysis frequently show that the performance of
the feedback system is unacceptable for a given application because of such deficiencies as low De-
sensitivity, slow speed of response, or poor relative stability.

The process of modifying the system to improve the performance is called Compensation.

The required device added in control system to obtain the performance as per desired specification is known
as Compensator.

Phase lead Compensation:

A phase lead compensator improves transient response of the system.As the name implies, this network
provides positive or leading phase shift of the output signal relative to the input signal at all frequencies. Lead-
network parameters are usually selected to locate its singularities near the crossover frequency of the system
being compensated. The positive phase shift of the network then improves the phase margin of the system.
A phase-lead compensator has a transfer function of the form:

Where,

A Lead Compensator is a high-pass filter.

Zeros of the transfer function dominate in Phase Lead Compensation Technique.

Phase lag Compensation: Phase-lag systems are very common. These systems occur when an energy
storage unit and an energy dissipator are combined. One example is the RC low pass. The phase-lag
compensator has a negative phase angle and so is used to subtract phase from an uncompensated system.
A phase-lag compensator has a transfer function of the form:

Where,

Because the phase-lag compensator adds a negative phase angle to a system, the phase lag is not a useful
effect of the compensation and does not provide a direct means of improving the phase margin. The phase-lag
compensator does, however, reduce the gain and so can be used to lower the crossover frequency. A
consequence of this is that, as usually the phase margin of the system is higher at the lower frequency, the
stability can be improved.

In other words, there should not be much change in the location of the dominant poles. The pole of a phase
lag compensator lies extremely close to the origin and its zero to the left of the pole and very near to it.
Phase lag lead Compensation: With single lag or lead compensation use we may not satisfied design
specifications. For an unstable uncompensated system, lead compensation provides faster response but does
not provide enough phase margin whereas lag compensation stabilize the system but does not provide
enough bandwidth. So we need multiple compensators in cascade i.e. phase lag- lead compensation.

It act as a band stop filter

Controlling Action

The controller (an analogue/digital circuit, and software), is trying to keep the controlled variable such as
temperature, liquid level, motor velocity, robot joint angle, at a certain value called the set point (SP).
A feedback control system does this by looking at the error (E) signal, which is the difference between
where the controlled variable (called the process variable (PV)) is, and where it should be.
Based upon the error signal, the controller decides the magnitude and the direction of the signal to the
actuator.

The proportional (P), the integral (I), and the derivative (D), are all basic controllers.
Types of controllers: P, I, D, PI, PD, and PID controllers

Proportional Control

With proportional control, the actuator applies a corrective force that is proportional to the amount of error:

Outputp = Kp × E

Outputp = system output due to proportional control

Kp = proportional constant for the system called gain

E = error, the difference between where the controlled variable should be and where it is. E = SP – PV.

One way to decrease the steady-state error is to increase the system gain (Kp), but high Kp can lead to
instability problems.

Increasing Kp independently without limit is not a sound control strategy.

Integral Control

The introduction of integral control in a control system can reduce the steady-state error to zero. Integral
control applies a restoring force that is proportional to the sum of all past errors, multiplied by time.

OutputI = KI × ∑(E×Δt)

OutputI = controller output due to integral control

KI = integral gain constant (sometimes expressed as 1/TI)

∑(E×Δt) = sum of all past errors (multiplied by time)

For a constant value of error ∑(E×Δt) will increase with time, causing the restoring force to get larger and
larger.

Eventually, the restoring force will get large enough to overcome friction and move the controlled variable in a
direction to eliminate the error.

Derivative Control
One solution to the overshoot problem is to include derivative control. Derivative control ‘applies the brakes,’
slowing the controlled variable just before it reaches its destination.

OutputD = controller output due to derivative control

KD = derivative gain constant

= error rate of change (slope of error curve)

Combining P, I and D controllers

As proportional, integral and derivative controllers have their individual strengths and weaknesses, they are
often combined so that their strengths are maximised, whilst minimising their weaknesses. Many industrial
controllers are a combination of P + I, or P + D, and are referred to as PI and PD controllers respectively.

PID control

A proportional–integral–derivative controller (PID controller) is a generic control loop feedback mechanism

(controller) widely used in industrial control systems.

A PID controller attempts to correct the error between a measured process variable and a desired setpoint by
calculating and then outputting a corrective action that can adjust the process accordingly.

The foundation of the system is proportional control. Adding integral control provides a means to eliminate
steady-state error, but increases overshoot. Derivative control increases stability by reducing the tendency to
overshoot.

Simply adding together the three required control components generates the response of the PID system.

Output PID = output from PID controller

KP = proportional control gain

KI = integral control gain

KD = derivative control gain

E = error (deviation from set point)

∑(E×Δt) = sum of all past errors (area under the error/time curve)

= rate of change of error (slope of the error curve)

Equation is:

When you are designing a PID controller for a given system, follow the steps shown below to obtain the
desired response.

1. Obtain an open-loop response and determine what needs to be improved.

2. Add a proportional control to improve the rise time.
3. Add a derivative control to improve the overshoot.
4.
5. Add an integral control to eliminate the steady-state error.
6. Adjust each of Kp, Ki, and Kd until you obtain a desired overall response.

The characteristics of P, I, and D controllers

A proportional controller (Kp) will have the effect of reducing the rise time and will reduce, but never
eliminate, the steady-state error.
An integral control (Ki) will have the effect of eliminating the steady-state error, but it may make the
transient response worse.
A derivative control (Kd) will have the effect of increasing the stability of the system, reducing the
overshoot, and improving the transient response.

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 Detailed Champion Study Plan for GATE EC 2021

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In this article,you will find the study notes on Compensator & Controller which will cover the topics such
as Series Compensation,Lead-Compensator,Lag Compensator,Feedback Compensation,P,I,D,PI,PID
Controller.
Compensation Technique

In Control Engineering we generally focused on methods used to analyze the performance of a feedback
system with a given set of parameters. The results of such analysis frequently show that the performance of
the feedback system is unacceptable for a given application because of such deficiencies as low De-
sensitivity, slow speed of response, or poor relative stability.

The process of modifying the system to improve the performance is called Compensation.

The required device added in control system to obtain the performance as per desired specification is known
as Compensator.

Phase lead Compensation:

A phase lead compensator improves transient response of the system.As the name implies, this network
provides positive or leading phase shift of the output signal relative to the input signal at all frequencies. Lead-
network parameters are usually selected to locate its singularities near the crossover frequency of the system
being compensated. The positive phase shift of the network then improves the phase margin of the system.

A phase-lead compensator has a transfer function of the form:

Where,
 A Lead Compensator is a high-pass filter.
Zeros of the transfer function dominate in Phase Lead Compensation Technique.

Phase lag Compensation: Phase-lag systems are very common. These systems occur when an energy
storage unit and an energy dissipator are combined. One example is the RC low pass. The phase-lag
compensator has a negative phase angle and so is used to subtract phase from an uncompensated system.

A phase-lag compensator has a transfer function of the form:

Where,
Because the phase-lag compensator adds a negative phase angle to a system, the phase lag is not a useful
effect of the compensation and does not provide a direct means of improving the phase margin. The phase-lag
compensator does, however, reduce the gain and so can be used to lower the crossover frequency. A
consequence of this is that, as usually the phase margin of the system is higher at the lower frequency, the
stability can be improved.

In other words, there should not be much change in the location of the dominant poles. The pole of a phase
lag compensator lies extremely close to the origin and its zero to the left of the pole and very near to it.

Phase lag lead Compensation: With single lag or lead compensation use we may not satisfied design
specifications. For an unstable uncompensated system, lead compensation provides faster response but does
not provide enough phase margin whereas lag compensation stabilize the system but does not provide
enough bandwidth. So we need multiple compensators in cascade i.e. phase lag- lead compensation.

It act as a band stop filter

Controlling Action

The controller (an analogue/digital circuit, and software), is trying to keep the controlled variable such as
temperature, liquid level, motor velocity, robot joint angle, at a certain value called the set point (SP).
A feedback control system does this by looking at the error (E) signal, which is the difference between
where the controlled variable (called the process variable (PV)) is, and where it should be.
Based upon the error signal, the controller decides the magnitude and the direction of the signal to the
actuator.

The proportional (P), the integral (I), and the derivative (D), are all basic controllers.

Types of controllers: P, I, D, PI, PD, and PID controllers

Proportional Control

With proportional control, the actuator applies a corrective force that is proportional to the amount of error:

Outputp = Kp × E
Outputp = system output due to proportional control

Kp = proportional constant for the system called gain

E = error, the difference between where the controlled variable should be and where it is. E = SP – PV.

One way to decrease the steady-state error is to increase the system gain (Kp), but high Kp can lead to
instability problems.

Increasing Kp independently without limit is not a sound control strategy.

Integral Control

The introduction of integral control in a control system can reduce the steady-state error to zero. Integral
control applies a restoring force that is proportional to the sum of all past errors, multiplied by time.

OutputI = KI × ∑(E×Δt)

OutputI = controller output due to integral control

KI = integral gain constant (sometimes expressed as 1/TI)

∑(E×Δt) = sum of all past errors (multiplied by time)

For a constant value of error ∑(E×Δt) will increase with time, causing the restoring force to get larger and
larger.

Eventually, the restoring force will get large enough to overcome friction and move the controlled variable in a
direction to eliminate the error.

Derivative Control

One solution to the overshoot problem is to include derivative control. Derivative control ‘applies the brakes,’
slowing the controlled variable just before it reaches its destination.

OutputD = controller output due to derivative control

KD = derivative gain constant

= error rate of change (slope of error curve)

 Combining P, I and D controllers

As proportional, integral and derivative controllers have their individual strengths and weaknesses, they are
often combined so that their strengths are maximised, whilst minimising their weaknesses. Many industrial
controllers are a combination of P + I, or P + D, and are referred to as PI and PD controllers respectively.

PID control

A proportional–integral–derivative controller (PID controller) is a generic control loop feedback mechanism

(controller) widely used in industrial control systems.

A PID controller attempts to correct the error between a measured process variable and a desired setpoint by
calculating and then outputting a corrective action that can adjust the process accordingly.

The foundation of the system is proportional control. Adding integral control provides a means to eliminate
steady-state error, but increases overshoot. Derivative control increases stability by reducing the tendency to
overshoot.

Simply adding together the three required control components generates the response of the PID system.

Output PID = output from PID controller

KP = proportional control gain

KI = integral control gain

KD = derivative control gain

E = error (deviation from set point)

∑(E×Δt) = sum of all past errors (area under the error/time curve)

= rate of change of error (slope of the error curve)

Equation is:

When you are designing a PID controller for a given system, follow the steps shown below to obtain the
desired response.

1. Obtain an open-loop response and determine what needs to be improved.

2. Add a proportional control to improve the rise time.
3. Add a derivative control to improve the overshoot.
4. Add an integral control to eliminate the steady-state error.
5. Adjust each of Kp, Ki, and Kd until you obtain a desired overall response.

The characteristics of P, I, and D controllers

A proportional controller (Kp) will have the effect of reducing the rise time and will reduce, but never
eliminate, the steady-state error.
An integral control (Ki) will have the effect of eliminating the steady-state error, but it may make the
transient response worse.
A derivative control (Kd) will have the effect of increasing the stability of the system, reducing the
overshoot, and improving the transient response.

Candidates can practice 150+ Mock Tests with Gradeup Green Card for exams like GATE, ESE, NIELIT from
the following link:
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Follow the full schedule of Champion study plan for GATE ECE 2021 from the following link:
Detailed Champion Study Plan for GATE EC 2021

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Click Here to Avail GATE EE Green Card!

Thanks

Prep Smart. Score Better. Stay Safe

In this article, you will find the study notes on Nyquist stability Criteria & Analysis which will cover the topics
such as Nyquist Stability principle, Cauchy Principle, Concept of Encirclement & Enclosement, Nyquist
Plot, Phase Margin & Gain Margin with the help of Nyquist Plot.
Polar Plot

The polar plot of a sinusoidal transfer function G(jω) is a plot of the magnitude of G(jω) versus the phase angle
of G(jω) on polar coordinates as ω varied from zero to infinity.

Procedure to Sketch the Polar Plot:

Step-1: Determine transfer function G(jω).

Step-2: Put s = jω in the transfer function to obtain G(jω).
Step-3: At ω = 0 and m = ∞, calculate | G(jω)| by and .

Step-4: Calculate the phase angle of G(jω) at ω = 0 and ω = ∞ by and .

Step-5: Rationalize the function G(jω) and separate the real and imaginary axis.
Step-6: Equate the imaginary part Im|G(jω)| to zero and determine the frequencies at which plot
intersects the real axis and calculate the value of G(jω) at the point of intersection by substituting the
determined value of frequency in the expression of G(jω).
Step-7: Equate the real part Re|G(jω)| to zero and determine the frequencies at which plots intersects the
imaginary axis and calculate the value G(jω) at the point of intersection by substituting the determined
value of frequency in the rationalized expression of G(jω).
Step-8: Sketch the polar plot with the help of above information.

Polar Plot of Some Standard Functions:

Type 0 System
Type 1 System

Type 2 System
Introduction of Additional Pole

Polar Plot for

Polar Plot For

Gain Margin and Phase Margin with Polar Plot

 Phase Crossover Frequency: The frequency at which the polar plot crosses the -180° line is called
phase crossover frequency.
Gain Crossover Frequency: The frequency at which the polar plot crosses the unity circle is called gain
crossover frequency.
Gain Margin: At phase crossover frequency, if gain is 'a' then

Gain margin = - 20 log a

Phase Margin (φm): At gain crossover frequency, if phase is φ then phase margin

φm = 180 + φ

where, φ is positive from anti-clockwise direction.

Nyquist Stability Criterion

A stability test for time invariant linear systems can also be derived in the frequency domain. It is known
as Nyquist stability criterion. It is based on the complex analysis result known as Cauchy’s principle of
argument.Nyquist criterion is used to identify the presence of roots of a characteristic equation of a control
system in a specified region of s-plane. Nyquist approach is same as Routh-Hurwitz but, it differ with following
aspect

The open loop transfer function "G(s)H(s)" is considered instead of closed loop characteristic equation "
1+G(s) H(s) = 0".
Inspection of graphical plot of G(s) H(s) enables to get more than yes or no answer of Routh-Hurwitz
method pertaining to stability of control system.
Nyquist plots display both amplitude and phase angle on a single plot, using frequency as a parameter in
the plot.
Nyquist plots have properties that allow you to see whether a system is stable or unstable. It will take
some mathematical development to see that, but it's the most useful property of Nyquist plots.
Concept of Encirclement & Enclosement
Encirclement:

point A is encircled in the counter in Counter Clock Wise by closed path, while point B is NOT encircled
by closed path.

Enclosement: A point or region is said to be enclosed by a closed path if the point or region lies to the right of
the path when the path is traversed in any prescribed direction.

In figure (a) point A is not enclosed by Path,while Point B is enclosed by path.

In figure (b) point A is enclosed by Path, while point B is not enclosed by path.

Nyquist Stability Criterion : Fundamentals

Consider the phasor from point A to S1 of encirclement = N, the net angle traversed by the phasor = 2πN rad
 In figure (a) Point A of encirclement = +1; Point B of encirclement = +2.
In figure (b) Point A of encirclement = -1; Point B of encirclement = -2.

Determination of N:
 For a SISO feedback system the closed-loop transfer function is given by

closed-loop system poles are obtained by solving the following equation

1+G(s)H(s) =0 =Δ(s) represents the system characteristic equation.

In the following we consider the complex function

D(s) = 1+G(s)H(s)

The zeros of D(s) are the closed-loop poles of the transfer function. Here now we concluded that the
poles of D(s) are the zeros of M(s).
At the same time the poles of D(s) are the open-loop control system poles since they are contributed by
the poles of H(s)G(s), which can be considered as the open-loop control system transfer function—
obtained when the feedback loop is open at some point.
The Nyquist stability test is obtained by applying the Cauchy principle of argument to the complex
function D(s).First,we state Cauchy’s principle of argument.

Cauchy’s Principle of Argument

Let F(s) be an analytic function in a closed region of the complex s-plane, except at a finite number of
points (namely,the poles of F(s)).
It is also assumed that F(s) is analytic at every point on the contour. Then, as 's' travels around the
contour in the s-plane in the clockwise direction, the function F(s) encircles the origin in the
[ReF{(s)},Img{F(s)}]-plane in the same direction N times , where N given By

N= P-Z

where Z and P stand for the number of zeros and poles (including their multiplicities) of the function F(s)
inside the contour.

The above result can be also written as

arg{F(s)} = (Z-P)2π = 2Nπ

Nyquist Plot

The Nyquist plot is a polar plot of the function D(s) = 1+ G(s)H(s) when travels around the contour

The contour in the above figure covers the whole unstable half plane of the complex plane s, R→∞.
Since the function D(s), according to Cauchy’s principle of argument, must be analytic at every point on
the contour, the poles D(s) of on the imaginary axis must be encircled by
infinitesimally small semicircles.

Nyquist Criterion:

It states that the number of unstable closed-loop poles is equal to the number of unstable open-loop
poles plus the number of encirclements of the origin of the Nyquist plot of the complex function F(s).
The above criterion can be slightly simplified if instead of plotting the function "D(s) = 1+G(s)H(s)", we
plot only the function G(s)H(s) and count encirclement of the Nyquist plot of G(s)H(s) around the
point (-1+j0).
The number of unstable closed-loop poles (Z) is equal to the number of unstable open-loop poles (P) plus
the number of encirclements (N) of the point (-1+j0) of the Nyquist plot of G(s)H(s), that is

Z= P+N

Phase and Gain Stability Margins

Two important notions can be derived from the Nyquist diagram: phase and gain stability margins. The phase
and gain stability margins are presented in Figure below
 They give the degree of relative stability; in other words, they tell how far the given system is from the
instability region. Their formal definitions are given by

where ωgc and ωpc stand for, respectively, the gain and phase crossover frequencies, which are
obtained from the figure as

Example: Consider a control system represented by

Solution: Since this system has a pole at the origin, the contour in the -plane should encircle it with a
semicircle of an infinitesimally small radius. This contour has three parts (a), (b), and (c). Mappings for each of
them are considered below.

On this semicircle the complex variable 's' is represented in the polar form by 's = Rejψ' with R→∞, - π/2
≤ ψ ≥ π/2. Substituting 's = Rejψ' into G(s)H(s), we easily see that G(s)H(s)→0 . Thus, the huge
semicircle from the -plane maps into the origin in the -plane .

Thus, the huge semicircle from the s-plane maps into the origin in the G(s)H(s)-plane.
 On this semicircle the complex variable is represented in the polar form by 's = rejψ' with r→0, - π/2 ≤
ψ ≥ π/2. so that we have

Since φ changes from '- π/2' at point A to ' π/2' at point B, arg{G(s)H(s)} will change from "π/2 to -π/2" .
We conclude that the infinitesimally small semicircle at the origin in the s-plane is mapped into a semicircle
of infinite radius in the G(s)H(s)-plane.

On this part of the contour s takes pure imaginary values, i.e. s= jω with ω changing from'-∞ to
+∞'.Due to symmetry, it is sufficient to study only mapping along "0+≤ ω ≥+∞" . We can find the real and
imaginary parts of the function G(jω)H(jω), which are given by

From the above expressions, we see that neither the real nor the imaginary parts can be made zero, and
hence the Nyquist plot has no points of intersection with the coordinate axis. For ω= 0+ we are at point B and
since the plot at ω= +∞ will end up at the origin.Note that the vertical asymptote of the Nyquist plot is given by
 {Re G(jo±)H(jo±)} = -1

From the Nyquist diagram we see that N= 0 and since there are no open-loop poles in the left half of the
complex plane, i .e.P=0, we have Z =0 so that the corresponding closed-loop system has no unstable
poles.

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In this article, you will find the study notes on State Space Analysis which will cover the topics such as State,
State Equation, Output Equation,Block Diagram Representation of Linear Systems,Transformation
from Classical Form to State-Space Representation Close Loop System,State Transition
Matrix,Property of STM Controllability & Observability.

The so-called state-space description provide the dynamics as a set of coupled first-order differential
equations in a set of internal variables known as state variables, together with a set of algebraic equations that
combine the state variables into physical output variables.

State: The state of a dynamic system refers to a minimum set of variables, known as state variables, that fully
describe the system.

A mathematical description of the system in terms of a minimum set of variables,xi(t), i = 1,...,n, together
with knowledge of those variables at an initial time t0,and the system inputs for time t ≥ t0, are sufficient to
predict the future system state and outputs for all time t>t0.

The dynamic behavior of a state-determined system is completely characterized by the response of the
set of n variables xi(t), where the number n is defined to be the order of the system.
The system Shown in the above figure has two inputs u1(t) and u2(t), and four
output variables y1(t),...,y4(t). If the system is state-determined, knowledge of its state variables (x1(t0),
x2(t0),...,xn(t0)) at some initial time t0,and the inputs u1(t) and u2(t) for t ≥ t0 is sufficient to determine all
future behavior of the system.
The state variables are an internal description of the system which completely characterize the system
state at any time t, and from which any output variables yi(t) may be computed.

The State Equations

In the standard mathematical form of the system is expressed as a set of n coupled first-order ordinary
differential equations, known as the state equations,in which the time derivative of each state variable is
expressed in terms of the state variables x1(t),...,xn(t) and the system inputs u1(t),...,ur(t). In the general case
the form of the n state equations is:

where = dxi/dt and each of the functions fi (x, u, t), (i = 1,...,n) may be a general nonlinear, time varying
function of the state variables, the system inputs, and time.
It is common to express the state equations in a vector form, in which the set of n state variables is
written as a state vector x(t)=[x1(t), x2(t),...,xn(t)]T, and the set of r inputs is written as an input
vector u(t)=[u1(t), u2(t),...,ur(t)]T.Each state variable is a time varying component of the column vector
x(t).
In vector notation the set of n equations in Eqs. (1) may be written

where f (x, u, t) is a vector function with n components fi (x, u, t).

where the coefficients aij and bij are constants that describe the system.

Last equation can be written in matrix form as below

which may be summarized as:

Where state vector x is a column vector of length n, the input vector u is a column vector of length r, A is
an n × n square matrix of the constant coefficients aij , and B is an n × r matrix of the coefficients bij that
weight the inputs.
Output Equations

A system output is defined to be any system variable of interest.An arbitrary output variable in a system of
order n with r inputs may be written as
 y(t) = c1x1 + c2x2 + ... + cnxn + d1u1 + ... + drur

where the ci and di are constants. If a total of m system variables are defined as outputs,then the output
equation can also be obtained as State Equation in compact form

y = Cx + Du

where y is a column vector of the output variables yi(t), C is an m×n matrix of the constant coefficients
cij that weight the state variables, and D is an m × r matrix of the constant coefficients dij that weight the
system inputs.
For many physical systems the matrix D is the null matrix, and the output equation reduces to a simple
weighted combination of the state variable

if D= 0 ; then Y = Cx
Block Diagram Representation of Linear Systems Described by State Equations

A system of order n has n integrators in its block diagram.The derivatives of the state variables are the inputs
to the integrator blocks, and each state equation expresses a derivative as a sum of weighted state variables
and inputs. A detailed block diagram representing a system of order n may be constructed directly from the
state and output equations as follows:

Draw n integrator (S−1) blocks, and assign a state variable to the output of each block.
At the input to each block (which represents the derivative of its state variable) draw a summing element.
Use the state equations to connect the state variables and inputs to the summing elements through
scaling operator blocks.
Expand the output equations and sum the state variables and inputs through a set of scaling operators to
form the components of the output.

Example: Draw a block diagram for the general second-order, single-input single-output system

block diagram shown below is drawn using the four steps described above
Transformation from Classical Form to State-Space Representation

Let the differential equation representing the system be of order n, and without loss of generality assume that
the order of the polynomial operators on both sides is the same.

(ansn + an−1sn−1+ ··· + a0)Y(s) =(bnsn + bn−1sn−1 + ··· + b0)U(s)

We may multiply both sides of the equation by s−n to ensure that all differential operators have been
eliminated

an+ an−1s−1 + ··· + a1s−(n−1) + a0s−nY(s) =bn+bn−1s−1 + ··· + b1s−(n−1)+ ··· + b0s−nU(s)

from which the output may be specified in terms of a transfer function. If we define a dummy variable Z(s), and
split into two parts

Eq. of Z(s) can ne be solved for U(s)

U(s) = (an + an−1s−1 + ··· + a1s−(n−1) + a0s−nX(s)

State-Space and Transfer Function

The state equation form can be transformed into transfer function.

Tanking the Laplace transform and neglect initial condition then

sX(s)- X(0) = AX(s)+BU(s)

y(s) = CX(s) + DU(s)

then sX(s)-AX(s)= X(0)+BU(s)

By Neglecting Initial Conditions

(sI-A)X(s) = BU(s)

X(s) = (sI-A)-1 BU(s)

Then Put the value of X(s) for Y(s)...

then Y(s) = C(sI-A)-1BU(s)+ DU(s)

Y(s)/U(s) = G(s) = C(sI-A)-1B+D

State-Transition Matrix

The state-transition matrix is defined as a matrix that satisfies the linear homogeneous state
equation:

Let ϕ(t) be the n × n matrix that represents the state-transition matrix; then it must satisfy the
equation:

Furthermore, let x(0) denote the initial state at t = 0; then ϕ(t) is also defined by the matrix
equation:

which is the solution of the homogeneous state equation for t ≥ 0. One way of determining ϕ(t)
is by taking the Laplace transform on both sides of Eq. (i); we have

Solving for X(s) from Eq. (v). we get

where it is assumed that the matrix (s1 – A) is non-singular. Taking the inverse Laplace
transform on both sides of Eq. (v) yields

By comparing Eq.(iv) with Eq. (v), the state-transition matrix is identified to be

An alternative way of solving the homogeneous state equation is to assume a solution, as in
the classical method of solving linear differential equations. We let the solution to be

for t ≥ 0, where eAt represents the following power series of the matrix At, and

Properties of State-Transition Matrices.

Controllability & Observability

Controllability: Controllability can be define in order to be able to do whatever we want with the given
dynamic system under control input, the system must be controllable.A system is said to be controllable at
time t0 if it is possible by means of an unconstrained control vector to transfer the system from any initial state
to any other state in a finite interval of time.

Condition for Controllability;

If the rank of CB = [ B : AB : ..... An-1B is equal to n ] , then the system is controllable.

Observability: In order to see what is going on inside the system under observation, the system must be
observable.A system is said to be observable at time t0 if, with the system in state X(t0),it is possible to
determine this state from the observation of the output over a finite interval of time.

Condition for Observability;

If the rank of OB = [ CT : ATCT : ..... AT)n-1CT is equal to n] , then the system is sail to be Observable.

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Prep Smart. Score Better. Stay Safe