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Sudip Mondal <[email protected]> Tue, Apr 20, 2021 at 8:28 PM

To: Sudip Mondal <[email protected]>

In this article, you will find the study notes on Power Semiconductor which will cover
the topics such as Basic Principle of Power Converter,Classification of Power
Semiconductor,Power Diodes,Application of Power Semiconductor Three/Four
Layer Power Diodes,HVT,SCR,J-FET,MOSFET,GTO,IGBT & TRIAC.

Power electronics is gaining more and more importance in industry and society. It has
the potential to substantially increase the efficiency of power systems, a task of great
significance.

Power electronic systems convert and control electrical energy in an efficient manner
between a source and a load. Sensor interfaces to the source and load, as well as
information and communication links, are often integrated.

IEEE Power Electronics Society defines the field of power electronics as “This
technology encompasses the effective use of electronic components, the application of
circuit theory and design techniques, and the development of analytical tools toward
efficient electronic conversion, control, and conditioning of electric power”.

Basic Principles of Power Converters

Active Components: The power semiconductor components that turn on and off
the power flow within the converter. The devices are either in the off-state (forward
or reverse blocking) or in the on-state (conducting).
Passive Components: Like transformers, inductors, and capacitors, which
temporarily store energy within the converter system. Based on the operating
 frequency, voltage, cooling method, and level of integration, different magnetic,
dielectric and insulation materials are used. For a given power rating of the
converter, higher operating (switching) frequencies enable smaller passive
components.
Control Unit: Analog and digital electronics, signal converters, processors, and
sensors, to control the energy flow within the converter such that the internal
variables (voltage, current) follow computed reference signals that guarantee
proper behavior of the converter according to the external commands.
Classification of power semiconductor switches

Power devices is divided into terms of their number of terminals:

The two-terminal devices: whose state is completely dependent on the external

power circuit they are connected to.
The three-terminal devices: whose state is not only dependent on their external
power circuit, but also on the signal on their driving terminal (gate or base).

A second classification has to do with the type of charge carriers they use:

Some devices are majority carrier devices (Schottky diode, MOSFET, JFET) - use
only one type of charge carriers (i.e., either electrons or holes)
Others are minority carrier devices (p-n diode, Thyristor, BJT, IGBT) - use both
charge carriers (i.e. electrons and holes).

A third classification is based on the degree of controllability:

Uncontrollable switches (diodes)

Semi-Controllable Switches (thyristors)
Fully-Controllable Switches (BJT, MOSFET, JFET, IGBT, GTO, MCT)
Power Diode

Types of power diodes

General purpose diode (rectifier diode): standard recovery.

Fast recovery diode: Reverse recovery time and charge specified. trr is usually
less than 1μs, for many less than 100 ns,ultra-fast recovery diode.
Schottky diode (Schottky barrier diode barrier diode-SBD): Essentially no
recovered charge, and lower forward voltage.Restricted to low voltage (less than
200V),they are majority carrier device.

An ideal diode should have the following characteristics:

When forward-biased: The voltage across the end terminals of the diode should
be zero, whatever the current that flows through.
When reverse-biased: the leakage current should be zero,whatever the voltage
.The transition between on and off states should be instantaneous.

Practical Power Diode

Static Parameters

Forward voltage VF (threshold + linear incr.)

Reverse current IR
Reverse breakdown voltage VB
Forward current IF (avg. and surge)

Dynamic Parameters

Forward recovery time tfr

Reverse recovery time trr
Peak reverse recovery current IRR
Diode capacitance Cd
Rate of voltage and current: di/dt, dv/dt
Transient thermal resistance (high frequency)

Approximate relation between storage Qrr, trr and IRR

Power losses on power semiconductor devices

Total power loss on power semiconductor = (conduction loss + turn-off loss) + (off-state
loss + + turn-on loss)

Where conduction loss is the On State Loss ,

Turn Off & Turn On Losses are the Switching Loss

Operating and Selecting Power Semiconductors

Typical design specifications of Power Semiconductor devices are low cost, high
efficiency, or high power density (low weight, small size). Ultimately, thermal
considerations, i.e. device losses, cooling, and maximum operating temperature,
determine the physical limits of a converter design. When devices are operated within
their (electrical) safe operation area (SOA), conduction and switching losses dominate
device losses. In general, the outcome of the design depends greatly on the selection of
the following:

Device type (unipolar, bipolar, transistor, thyristor) and rating (voltage and current
margins, frequency range)
Switching frequency
Converter layout (minimizing parasitic stray inductances, capacitances, and skin
effects)
Topology (two level, multi-level, hard switching, or soft switching)
Gate control (switching slew rate)
Control (switching functions, minimizing filters, EMI).

Applications of Power Semiconductors

Since All the electric power is not only passes through copper, dielectric, or
magnetic materials but also passes through the semiconductors,because
most applications require energy conversions or because increased efficiency is
required in these energy conversion processes.
Depending on the required voltage and current ratings of the power
semiconductors, different types of power semiconductors are being used.
At the low power end (1 VA up to 1 kVA), switched-mode power supplies for
battery chargers, mostly for portable communication devices and power tools, as
well as for electronic systems (audio, video, and controllers).
Drive applications span a power range from few 10VA up to 100MVA. In
automotive applications, many small drives (100VA up to 1kVA) are fed from the
onboard power source, nominally 12 or 24V.
As transistor-type devices offer short-circuit protection at low cost, IGBTs are
predominantly being used in drives fed from power grids. Medium-voltage drives
(grid voltage from 1000V up to 36kV) use, depending on drive rating, transistor
(IGBTs), and turn-off thyristor (GTO or GCT)-type devices. Above 3kV, i.e. at
higher voltage and power ratings (above 5MW).

An Introduction To Power Devices

The P-N diode will be considered first since this is the basis of all active switches. This
will be followed by a look at both 3 layer and 4 layer switches.Under normal operating
conditions the off-state losses in the switch are practically zero. For square wave
systems, the on-state losses (occurring during the on-time), are primarily determined by
the On-State Resistance which gives rise to an on-state voltage drop, VON.

The (static) on-state losses may be calculated from

PSTATIC = δ.VON.ION

The total dynamic power loss is proportional to both the frequency and to the turn-
on and turn-off energies.

PDYNAMIC = f.(EON +EOFF)

The total losses are the sum of the on-state and dynamic losses

PTOT = δ.VON.ION + f.(EON +EOFF)

At the other extreme a device whose on-state loss is negligible compared with the
switching loss, will be limited in frequency due to the increasing dynamic losses.
High frequency switching When considering frequency limitation it is important to
realise that the real issue is not just the frequency, but also the minimum on-time
required. For example, an SMPS working at 100 kHz with an almost constant
output power,will have a pulse on-time tP of about 2-5µs.

Three Layer devices

The three basic design of 3-layer devices are shown in the above figuree.It should
be emphasised here that the discussion is restricted to high voltage devices
only,which means that all relevant devices will have a vertical structure
,characterised by a wide N--layer.
The figure shows how a three layer device can be formed by adding an N type
layer to the P-N diode structure. Two back to back P-N diodes thus form the basis
of the device, where the P layer provides a means to control the current when the
device is in the on-state.
 There are three ways to use this P-layer as a control terminal. The first is to feed
current into the terminal itself. The current through the main terminals is now
proportional to the drive current. This device is called a High Voltage Transistor or
HVT.
The High Voltage Transistor (HVT)

The High Voltage Transistor uses a positive base current to control the main
collector current.
The relation is: IC = hfe *IB. The base drive forward biases the base emitter P-N
junction and charge (holes and electrons) will pass through it.
Now the base of a transistor is so thin that the most of the electrons do not flow to
the base but into the collector - giving rise to a collector current.
As we know the ratio between the holes and electrons depend on the doping. So
by correctly doping the base emitter junction, the electron current can be made
much larger than the hole current, which means that IC can be much larger than
IB.

The on-state voltage of an HVT will be considerably lower than for a MOS or J-
FET. This is its main advantage, but the resulting charge stored in the N- layer has
to be delivered and also to be removed.
A serious limitation of the HVT is the occurrence of second breakdown during
switch off. The current contracts towards the middle of the emitter finger sand the
current density can become very high.
The RBSOAR (Reverse Bias Safe Operating Area) graph specifies where the
device can be used safely. Device damage may result if the device is not properly
used and one normally needs a snubber (dV/dt network) to protect the device.
The J-FET
 The J-FET(Junction Field Effect Transistor) has a direct resistance between the
Source and the Drain via the opening in the P-layer.
When the gate-source voltage is zero the device is ON. Its on-resistance is
determined by the resistance of the silicon and no charge is present to make the
resistance lower as in the case of the bipolar transistor.
When a negative voltage is applied between Gate and Source, a depletion layer is
formed which pinches off the current path. So, the current through the switch is
determined by the voltage on the gate.
The drive energy is low, it consists mainly of the charging and discharging of the
gate-source diode capacitance. This sort of device is normally very fast.

The MOS transistor

The M-O-S (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) transistor is normally off: a positive

voltage is required to induce a channel in the P-layer.
When a positive voltage is applied to the gate, electrons are attracted to the
surface beneath the gate area. In this way an "inverted" N-type layer is forced in
the P-material providing a current path between drain and source.
The properties are quite like the J-FET with the exception that the charge is now
across the (normally very thin) gate oxide.
Unlike the J-FET it does not require a negative voltage although a negative voltage
may help switch the device off quicker.
The MOSFET is the preferred device for higher frequency switching since it
combines fast speed,easy drive and wide commercial availability.
Four layer devices

The three basic designs from the previous section can be extended with a P+-layer
at the back, thereby generating three basic Four Layer Devices. The addition of
this extra layer creates a PNP transistor from the P+-N--P layers.
An important point is latching . This happens when the internal currents are such
that we are not able to turn off the device using the control electrode. The only way
to turn it off is by externally removing the current from the device.
The SCR/Thyristor(Silicon Controlled Rectifier)

A thyristor(or SCR, Silicon Controlled Rectifier) is essentially an HVT with an

added P+-layer. The resulting P--N--P+ transistor is on when the whole device is on and
provides enough base current to the N+-P-N- transistor to stay on. So after an initial
kick-on, no further drive energy is required.
 The classical thyristor is thus a latching device. Its construction is normally not
very fine and as a result the gate contact is too far away from the centre of the
active area to be able to switch it off.
Also the current density is much higher than in a bipolar transistor.The switching
times however are very long. Its turn-on is hampered by its structure since it takes
quite a while for the whole crystal to become active. This seriously limits its dI/dt.
Once a thyristor is on it will only turn-off after having zero current fora few
microseconds. This is done by temporarily forcing the current via a so-
called commutation circuit.
A GTO (Gate-Turn-Off Thyristor)

A major variation on the thyristor is the GTO (Gate Turn Off Thyristor).
This is a thyristor where the structure has been tailored to give better speed by
techniques such as accurate lifetime killing, fine finger or cell structures and
"anode shorts" (short circuiting P+ and N- at the back in order to decrease the
current gain of the PNP transistor).
As a result, the product of the gain of both NPN and PNP is just sufficient to keep
the GTO conductive. A negative gate current is enough to sink the hole current
from the PNP and turn the device off.
 The lower terminal is here also the Anode.

The SITh (Static Induction Thyristor)

Sometimes also referred to as FCT (Field Controlled Thyristor) is essentially a J-

FET with an added P+ back layer.
In contrast to the standard thyristor, charge is normally only injected from the back,
so the total amount of charge is limited. However, a positive gate drive is possible
which will reduce on-state resistance.
Active extraction of charge via the gate contact is possible and switching speeds
may be reduced considerably by applying an appropriate negative drive as in the
case of an HVT. As for the SIT the technological complexity is a severe drawback,
as is its negative drive requirements. Consequently mass production of this device
is not available yet.
The IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor)

An IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) is an MOS transistor with P+ at the

back. Charge is injected from the back only, which limits the total amount of
charge.
Active charge extraction is not possible, so the carrier lifetime τ should be chosen
carefully, since that determines the switching losses.Again two ranges are
available with both fast and slow IGBTs.
The speed of the fast IGBT is somewhat better than that of a GTO because a
similar technology is used to optimise the IGBT but only the back P+-layer is
responsible for the charge.
The IGBT is gaining rapidly in popularity since its manufacturing is similar to
producing Power MOS and an increasing market availability exists. Although the
latching of IGBTs was seen as a problem,modern optimised devices don’t suffer
from latch-up in practical conditions.
Triac

A Tirac belongs to the thyristor (or SCR) family. However, unlike SCRs, which are
unidirectional devices (i.e.,can conduct current only in one direction), a Triac is
bidirectional and so current can flow through them in either direction.
Another difference from SCRs is that TRIACs can be triggered by either a positive
or a negative current applied to its gate electrode, whereas SCRs can be triggered
only by currents going into the gate.
Once triggered, the device continues to conduct until the current drops below the
“holding current”.

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In this article, you will find the study notes on Thyristor & Their
Operational Characteristics which will cover the topics such as Thyristor,V-I
Characteristic of Thyristor,Different Mode of Operation of SCR,Turn-ON Methods of
SCR,Switching Characteristic, Thyristor Protection, Series & Parallel Operation.
Thyristor

Thyristor is a four layer three junction pnpn semiconductor switching device. It has 3
terminals these are anode, cathode and gate. SCRs are solid state device, so they are
compact, possess high reliability and have low loss. SCR is made up of silicon, it act as
a rectifier; it has very low resistance in the forward direction and high resistance in the
reverse direction. It is a unidirectional device.
Anode and cathode are connected to main source voltage through the load. The gate
and cathode are fed from source ES. A typical SCR V-I characteristic is as shown
below:

V-I characteristic of SCR

VBO=Forward breakover voltage
VBR=Reverse breakover voltage;Ig=Gate current
Va=Anode voltage across the thyristor terminal A,K; Ia=Anode current
It can be inferred from the static V-I characteristic of SCR.

SCR have 3 modes of operation:

Reverse blocking mode

Forward blocking mode ( OFF state)
Forward conduction mode (ON state)

Reverse Blocking Mode

When cathode of the thyristor is made positive with respect to anode with switch open
thyristor is reverse biased. Junctions J1 and J2 are reverse biased where junction J2 is
forward biased. The device behaves as if two diodes are connected in series with
reverse voltage applied across them.

A small leakage current of the order of few mA only flows. As the thyristor is
reverse biased and in blocking mode. It is called as acting in reverse blocking
mode of operation.
 Now if the reverse voltage is increased, at a critical breakdown level called reverse
breakdown voltage VBR,an avalanche occurs at J1 and J3 and the reverse current
increases rapidly. As a large current associated with VBR and hence more losses
to the SCR.
This results in Thyristor damage as junction temperature may exceed its maximum
temperature rise.

Forward Blocking Mode

When anode is positive with respect to cathode, with gate circuit open, thyristor is
said to be forward biased.
Thus junction J1 and J3 are forward biased and J2 is reverse biased. As the
forward voltage is increases junction J2 will have an avalanche breakdown at a
voltage called forward breakover voltage VBO.
When forward voltage is less then VBO thyristor offers high impedance. Thus a
thyristor acts as an open switch in forward blocking mode.

Forward Conduction Mode

Here thyristor conducts current from anode to cathode with a very small voltage drop
across it. So a thyristor can be brought from forward blocking mode to forward
conducting mode:

By exceeding the forward breakover voltage.

By applying a gate pulse between gate and cathode.

During forward conduction mode of operation thyristor is in on state and behave like a
close switch. Voltage drop is of the order of 1 to 2mV. This small voltage drop is due to
ohmic drop across the four layers of the device.
Turn ON methods for SCR

Forward voltage triggering

Gate triggering
dv/dt triggering
Light triggering
Temperature triggering
Forward voltage triggering
A forward voltage is applied between anode and cathode with gate circuit open.

Junction J1 and J3 is forward biased.

Junction J2 is reverse biased.
As the anode to cathode voltage is increased breakdown of the reverse biased
junction J2 occurs. This is known as avalanche breakdown and the voltage at
which this phenomena occurs is called forward breakover voltage.
The conduction of current continues even if the anode cathode voltage reduces
below VBO till Ia will not go below Ih. Where Ih is the holding current for the
thyristor.
Gate triggering

This is the simplest, reliable and efficient method of firing the forward biased SCRs.
First SCR is forward biased. Then a positive gate voltage is applied between gate and
cathode. In practice the transition from OFF state to ON state by exceeding VBO is
never employed as it may destroy the device. The magnitude of VBO, so forward
breakover voltage is taken as final voltage rating of the device during the design of SCR
application.

Make the thyristor forward breakover voltage (say 800V) higher than the normal
working voltage. The benefit is that the thyristor will be in blocking state with
normal working voltage applied across the anode and cathode with gate open.
When we require the turning ON of a SCR a positive gate voltage between gate
and cathode is applied.
 The point to be noted that cathode n- layer is heavily doped as
compared to gate p-layer. So when gate supply is given between gate and
cathode gate p-layer is flooded with electron from cathode n-layer. Now the
thyristor is forward biased, so some of these electron reach junction J2 .
As a result width of J2 breaks down or conduction at J2 occur at a voltage less
than VBO.As Ig increases VBO reduces which decreases then turn ON time.
Another important point is duration for which the gate current is applied should be
more then turn ON time.
If the gate current is reduced to zero before the anode current reaches a minimum
value known as holding current, SCR can’t turn ON. In this process power loss is
less and also low applied voltage is required for triggering.

dv/dt triggering

This is a turning ON method but it may lead to destruction of SCR and so it must
be avoided.

When SCR is forward biased, junction J1 and J3 are forward biased and
junction J2 is reversed biased so it behaves as if an insulator is place between
two conducting plate.
Here J1 and J3 acts as a conducting plate and J2 acts as an insulator. J2 is known
as junction capacitor.
Now if we increase the rate of change of forward voltage instead of increasing the
magnitude of voltage. Junction J2 breaks and starts conducting. A high value of
changing current may damage the SCR. So SCR may be protected from
high dv/dt.

Since Q=CV

Ia = C(dv/dt)

Ia α dv/dt

Temperature triggering

During forward biased, J2 is reverse biased so a leakage forward current always

associated with SCR.
Since leakage current is temperature dependant,so if we increase the temperature
the leakage current will also increase and heat dissipation of junction J2 occurs.
When this heat reaches a sufficient value J2 will break and conduction starts.

Disadvantages
 This type of triggering causes local hot spot and may cause thermal run away of
the device.
This triggering cannot be controlled easily.
It is very costly as protection is costly.
Light Triggering

First a new recess niche is made in the inner p-layer. When this recess is irradiated,
then free charge carriers (electron and hole) are generated. Now if the intensity is
increased above a certain value then it leads to turn ON of SCR. Such SCR are known
as Light activated SCR (LASCR).

Latching current: The latching current may be defined as the minimum value of anode
current which at must attain during turn ON process to maintain conduction even if gate
signal is removed.

Holding Current:It is the minimum value of anode current below which if it falls, the
SCR will turn OFF.
Switching characteristics of Thyristors

The time variation of voltage across the thyristor and current through it during turn on
and turn off process gives the dynamic or switching characteristic of SCR.

Switching characteristic during turn on:

Turn on time: It is the time during which it changes from forward blocking state to ON
state. Total turn on time is divided into 3 intervals.

Delay time If Ig and Ia represent the final value of gate current and anode current.
Then the delay time can be explained as time during which the gate current attains 0.9
Ig to the instant anode current reaches 0.1 Ig or the anode current rises from forward
leakage current to 0.1 Ia.

1. Gate current 0.9Ig to 0.1 Ia.

Anode voltage falls from Va to 0.9Va.
Anode current rises from forward leakage current to 0.Ia.

Rise time (tr): Anode current rises from 0.1Ia to 0.9Ia. Forward blocking voltage falls
from 0.9Va to 0.1Va.Va is the initial forward blocking voltage.

Spread time (tp):Time taken by the anode current to rise from 0.9Ia to Ia.Time for the
forward voltage to fall from 0.1Vo to on state voltage drop of 1 to 1.5V. During turn on,
SCR is considered to be a charge controlled device.

Switching Characteristics During Turn Off

Thyristor turn off means it changed from ON to OFF state. Once thyristor is ON there is
no role of gate. As we know thyristor can be made turn OFF by reducing the anode
current below the latching current. Here we assume the latching current to be zero
ampere. If a forward voltage is applied across the SCR at the moment it reaches zero
then SCR will not be able to block this forward voltage.

So now the turn off time can be different as the instant anode current becomes zero to
the instant when SCR regains its forward blocking capability.

tq=trr+tqr

tq is the turn off time,trr is the reverse recovery time, tqr is the gate recovery time.

The turn off time is affected by:

Junction temperature
Magnitude of forward current di/dt during commutation.
Turn off time decreases with the increase of magnitude of reverse applied voltage.
Thyristor Protection

Over Voltage Protection: Over voltage occurring during the switching operation
causes the failure of SCR.
Internal Overvoltage Protection: It is due to the operating condition of SCR.During
the commutation of SCR ,when the anode current decays to zero anode current
reverses due to stored changes. First the reverse current rises to peak value, then
reverse current reduces abruptly with large di/dt. During series inductance of SCR
large transient large voltage i.e Ldi/dt. is generated.

External Overvoltage: This is due to external supply and load condition. This is
because of

The interruption of current flow in an inductive circuit.

Lightening strokes on the lines feeding the thyristor systems.

This overvoltages cause random turn ON of a SCR. The effect of overvoltage

is minimized using
RC circuits
Non linear resistor called voltage clamping device.

When voltage surge appears voltage clamping device offers a low resistance and it
create a virtual short circuit across the SCR. Hence voltage across SCR is clamped to a
safe value. When surge condition over voltage clamping device returns to high
resistance state. e.g. of voltage clamping device

Seleniumthyrector diodes
Metal Oxide varistors
Avalanche diode supressors

Over Current Protection: Long duration operation of SCR, during over current causes
junction temp. of SCR to rise above the rated value,causing permanent damage to
device.

SCR is protected from overcurrent by using

Circuit breakers
Fast acting fuses Proper co-ordination is essential because Fault current has to be
interrupted before SCR gets damaged.
Only faulty branches of the network has to be replaced.

Electronic Crowbar Protection

For overcurrent protection of power converter using SCR, electronic crowbar are used.
It provide rapid isolation of power converter before any damage occurs.

HEAT PROTECTION- To protect the SCR

1. From the local spots 2. Temp rise SCRs are mounted over heat sinks.
GATE PROTECTION-Gate circuit should also be protected from
1. Overvoltages 2. Overcurrents
Overvoltage across the gate circuit causes the false triggering of SCR Overcurrent raise
the junction temperature. Overvoltage protection is by zener diode across the gate
circuit.
Series and Parallel operation of SCR

SCR are connected in series for h.v demand and in parallel for fulfilling high current
demand. Sting efficiency can be defined as measure of the degree of utilization on
SCRs in a string.

String efficiency < 1.

Derating factor (DRF) = 1 – string efficiency.

If DRF more then no. of SCRs will more, so string is more reliable.

Series Operation: Let the rated blocking voltage of the string of a series connected
SCR is 2V1 as shown in the figure below, But in the string two SCRs are supplied a
maximum voltage of V1+V2.

Significance of String Efficiency

Two SCRs are have same forward blocking voltage ,When system voltage is more
then the voltage rating of a single SCR.
SCRs are connected in series in a string. There is a inherent variation in
characteristics.
 The voltage shared by each SCR may not be equal. Suppose, SCR1 leakage
resistance > SCR2 leakage resistance. For same leakage current I0 in the series
connected SCRs. For same leakage current SCR1 supports a voltage V1,
SCR2 supports a voltage V2.

So string η for two SCRs = V1+V2/ 2V2

= 1/2(1+V2/V1) which is < 1

so V1 > V2

The above operation is when SCRs are not turned ON. But in steady state of
operation,A uniform voltage distribution in the state can be achieved by connect a
suitable resistance across each SCRs , so that parallel combination have same
resistance.
But this is a cumbersome work. During steady state operation we connect same
value of shunt resistance across each SCRs. This shunt resistance is called state
equalizing circuit.

Let SCR1 has lower leakage current Ibm , It will block a voltage comparatively larger
than other SCRs.

Voltage across SCR1 is Vbm =I1R.

Voltage across (n-1)SCR is (n-1) I2R,
The voltage equation for the series circuit is

Vs = I1R+(n−1)I2R =Vbm+ (n-1)R(I − Ibmx)

as I1 = I− Ibmn

I2= I−Ibmx

So, Vs = Vbm+(n-1)R[I1−(Ibmx−Ibmn)]

If ΔIb= Ibmx−Ibmn

Then Vs = Vbm+(n-1)R (I1 −ΔIb)

Vs = Vbm+ (n-1)R I1-(n-1)R ΔIb

RI1= Vbm

So, Vs = Vbm+ (n-1) Vbm -(n-1)R ΔIb

= n Vbm- (n-1)R ΔIb

 SCR data sheet usually contain only maximum blocking current , Ibmx.

so we assume Ibmn= 0

So ΔIb=Ibmx
So the value of R calculated is low than actually required.
Parallel Operation

When current required by the load is more than the rated current of single thyristor ,
SCRs are connected in parallel in a string.

For equal sharing of current, SCRs must have same V-I characteristics during forward
conduction.VT across them must be same. For same VT,SCR1 share I1 and SCR2
share I2. If I1 is the rated current I2< I1 The total current I1+I2 and not rated
current 2I1.Type equation here.
Thus string efficiency ,

η= (V1+V2)/2V1

Middle conductor will have more inductance as compared to other two nearby
conductor. As a result less current flow through the middle conductor. Another
method is by magnetic coupling.

Thyristor Gate Characteristics

Vg = +ve gate to cathode voltage. Ig= +ve gate to cathode current. As the gate
cathode characteristic of a thyrister is a p-n junction.
Curve 1 the lowest voltage values that must be applied to turn on the SCR.
Curve 2 highest possible voltage values that can be safely applied to get circuit.
Vgm= Maximum limit for gat
e voltage ;
Igm= Maximum limilt for gate current.
Pgav = Rated gate power dissipation for each SCR.
These limits should not be crossed in order to avoid the permanent damage of the
device junction J3.
OY = Minimum limit of gate voltage to turn ON . OX = minimum limit of gate
current to turn ON.
If Vgm, Igm,Pgav are exceeded the thyristor will damage so the preferred gate drive
area of SCR is bcdefghb.
oa = The non triggering gate voltage , If firing circuit generates +ve gate signal
prior to the desired instant of triggering the SCR.It should be ensured that this un
wanted signal should be less than the non–triggering voltage oa.
Es = Vg+IgRs Gate Source Voltage; Vg = Gate Cathode Voltage.
Rs = Gate source resistance
If Igmn , Vgmn are the minimum gate current and gate voltage to turn ON the SCR.
Es = (Igmn+ Vgmn/R1)Rs +Vgmn.

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In Previous article we have already discussed about the In this article, you will find the
study notes on Thyristor Commutation Techniques & Diode Circuit
Rectifiers which will cover the topics such as Thyristor, V-I Characteristic of Natural
Commutation Circuit, Forced Commutation, Different Types Classes of Forced
Commutation, Diode Circuit Rectifier, Half-Wave Bridge Rectifier & Full Wave Bridge
Rectifier.
Thyristor Commutation Techniques

Because The continuous conduction of thyristors causes problems in some

applications. The process used for turning off a thyristor is called as commutation. By
the commutation process, the thyristor operating mode is changed from forward
conducting mode to forward blocking mode. So, the thyristor commutation methods or
thyristor commutation techniques are used to turn off.

Most of the Converter Equipments and Switch-Mode Power Supplies (SMPS) use
power electronics components like thyristors, MOSFET and other power
semiconductor devices for high frequency switching operations at high-power
ratings.

Here we are considering the thyristors that we use very frequently as bistable
switches in several applications. These thyristors use switches needed to be
switched on and off. For switching ON the thyristors, there is Some Thyristor Turn
ON methods called as thyristor triggering methods. Similarly, for Switching Off
Thyristors, there are methods called as thyristors commutation techniques.
The commutation techniques of thyristors are classified into two types:

Natural Commutation
Forced Commutation
Natural Commutation

Generally, if we consider AC supply, the current will flow through the zero crossing line
while going from positive peak to negative peak. Thus, a reverse voltage will appear
across the device simultaneously, which will turn off the thyristor immediately. This
process is called as natural commutation as thyristor is turned off naturally without using
any external components or circuit or supply for commutation purpose.

Natural commutation can be observed in AC voltage controllers, phase controlled

rectifiers and Cycloconverters.
Forced Commutation

The thyristor can be turned off by reverse biasing the SCR or by using active or
passive components. Thyristor current can be reduced to a value below the value
of holding current. Since the thyristor is turned off forcibly it is termed as a forced
commutation process.
Forced commutation can be observed while using DC supply; hence it is also
called as DC commutation. The external circuit used for forced commutation
process is called as commutation circuit and the elements used in this circuit are
called as commutating elements.
Classification of Forced Commutation Methods

The forced commutation can be classified into different methods as follows:

Class A: Self commutated by a resonating load

Class B: Self commutated by an LC circuit
Class C: Cor L-C switched by another load carrying SCR
Class D: C or L-C switched by an auxiliary SCR
Class E: An external pulse source for commutation
Class F: AC line commutation
Class A: Self Commutated by a Resonating Load

This is also known as self commutation, or resonant commutation, or load commutation.

In this commutation, the source of commutation voltage is in the load. This load must be
an under damped R-L-C supplied with a DC supply so that natural zero is obtained.The
commutating components L and C are connected either parallel or series with the load
resistance R as shown below with waveforms of SCR current, voltage and capacitor
voltage.

Class A is one of frequently used thyristor commutation techniques. If thyristor is

triggered or turned on, then anode current will flow by charging Capacitor C with
dot as positive.
The second order under-damped circuit is formed by the Inductor or AC
Register, Capacitor and Resistor. If the current builds up through SCR and
completes the half cycle, then the inductor current will flow through the SCR in the
reverse direction which will turn off thyristor.

After the thyristor commutation or turning off the thyristor, the capacitor will start
discharging from its peak value through the resistor is an exponential manner. The
 thyristor will be in reverse bias condition until the capacitor voltage returns to the
supply voltage level.
The value of load resistance and commutating components are so selected that
they forms a under damped resonant circuit to produce natural zero. When the
thyristor or SCR is triggered, the forward current starts flowing through it and
during this, the capacitor is charged up to the value of E.
Once the capacitor is fully charged (more than the supply source voltage) the SCR
becomes reverse biased and hence the commutation of the device.
The capacitor discharges through the load resistance to make ready the circuit for
the next cycle of operation. The time for switching OFF the SCR depends on the
resonant frequency which further depends on the L and C components.
Class B: Self Commutated by an L-C Circuit

The major difference between the class A and class B thyristor commutation
techniques is that the LC is connected in series with thyristor in class A, whereas
in parallel with thyristor in class B.
Before triggering on the SCR, the capacitor is charged up (dot indicates positive).
If the SCR is triggered or given triggering pulse, then the resulting current has two
components.
The constant load current flowing through the R-L load is ensured by the large
reactance connected in series with the load which is clamped with freewheeling
diode.
If sinusoidal current flows through the resonant L-C circuit, then the capacitor C is
charged up with dot as negative at the end of the half cycle.
 When the DC supply is applied to the circuit, the capacitor charges with an upper
plate positive and lower plate negative up to the supply voltage E. When the SCR
is triggered, the current flows in two directions, one is through E+–SCR–R–E- and
another one is the commutating current through L and C components.
Once the SCR is turned ON, the capacitor starts discharging through C+–L–T–C-.
When the capacitor is fully discharged, it starts charging with a reverse polarity.
Hence a reverse voltage applied across the SCR which causes the commutating
current IC to oppose load current IL.
When the commutating current Ic is higher than the load current, the SCR will
automatically turn OFF and the capacitor charges with original polarity.
In the above process, the SCR is turned ON for some time and then automatically
turned OFF for some time. This is a continuous process and the desired frequency
of ON/OFF depends on the values of L and C. This type of commutation is mostly
used in chopper circuits.

Class C: C or L-C Switched by another Load Carrying SCR

In the above thyristor commutation techniques we observed only one SCR but in these
class C commutation techniques of thyristor there will be two SCRs. One SCR is
considered as a main thyristor and the other as an auxiliary thyristor. In this
classification, both may act as main SCRs carrying load current and they can be
designed with four SCRs with load across the capacitor by using a current source for
supplying an integral converter.
 In this commutation method, the main SCR is to be commutated is connected in
series with the load and an additional or complementary SCR is connected in
parallel with main SCR. This method is also called as complementary
commutation.
If the thyristor T2 is triggered, then the capacitor will be charged up. If the thyristor
T1 is triggered, then the capacitor will discharge and this discharge current of C
will oppose the flow of load current in T2 as the capacitor is switched across T2 via
T1.

Class D: L-C or C Switched by an Auxiliary SCR

The class C and class D thyristor commutation techniques can be differentiated with the
load current in class D: only one of the SCR’s will carry the load current while the other
acts as an auxiliary thyristor whereas in class C both SCRs will carry load current. The
auxiliary thyristor consists of resistor in its anode which is having resistance of
approximately ten times the load resistance.
 When the supply voltage E is applied, both SCRs are in OFF state and hence the
capacitor voltage is zero. In order to charge the capacitor, SCR2 must be triggered
first. So the capacitor charges through the path E+–C+–C–SCR2- R- E-.
When the capacitor is fully charged the SCR2 becomes turned OFF because no
current flow through the SCR2 when the capacitor is charged fully. If the SCR1 is
triggered, the current flows in two directions; one is the load current path E+ –
SCR1- R- E- and another one is commutation current path C+ – SCR1- L- D- C.
As soon as the capacitor completely discharges, its polarities will be reversed but
due to the presence of diode, the reverse discharge is not possible. When the
SCR2 is triggered capacitor starts discharging through C+ – SCR2- SCR1- C-.
When this discharging current is more than the load current the SCR1 becomes
turned OFF.Again, the capacitor starts charging through the SCR2 to a supply
voltage E and then the SCR2 is turned OFF.
Therefore, both SCRs are turned OFF and the above cyclic process is repeated.
This commutation method is mainly used in inverters and also used in the Jones
chopper circuit.
Class E: External Pulse Source for Commutation

For the class E thyristor commutation techniques, a transformer which can not
saturate (as it is having a sufficient iron and air gap) and capable to carry the load
current with small voltage drop compared with the supply voltage.
 If the thyristor T is triggered, then the current will flow through the load and pulse
transformer.This is also known as external pulse commutation. In this, an external
pulse source is used to produce the reverse voltage across the SCR.
The circuit below shows the class E commutation circuit which uses a pulse
transformer to produce the commutating pulse and is designed with tight coupling
between the primary and secondary with a small air gap.

Diode Circuit Rectifier

Since the currents in the magnets have either to be varied according to the energy
(or the required changes in the orbit) of the particles or at least have to be ramped
from the turn on values to their final values.
the rectifiers use thyristor-based structures or mixed ones (diodes and thyristors or
diodes/thyristors and transistors).
The effects on the rectifier behaviour of the inductive components of the load and
of the AC line will be investigated. The use of passive filters to reduce the
harmonic content (ripple) of the voltage and current at the output of the rectifier will
be discussed.
Single Phase Half-wave rectifier

This is the simplest structure Only one diode is placed at the secondary of the
transformer. From the figure, the waveforms of the voltage at the secondary and of the
current in the load are shown. Since the load is a resistance, the voltage on the load is
proportional to the current.
 It is quite evident why this type of rectifier is called half-wave: the rectification
process occurs only during half-periods. It is also called single-way because the
load current iL(t) always circulates in the secondary winding in the same direction.

Idc = Vdc/RL

IL = VL/RL

The current in the secondary of the transformer can flow only when the diode conducts
and therefore it is equal to the current in the load:

FF = VL/VDC = π/2

TUF = 0.323 (or 0.286 TUF = according to some authors).

Full-wave rectifier — centre-tapped

In order to use both halves of the secondary AC voltage waveform, one can use two
diodes and create a return path for the current by adding a tap at the centre of the
secondary winding. This is the so-called centre-tapped rectifier.
 Diode D1 conducts during the positive half-wave of the voltage. Diode D2
conducts in the negative half. The current always flows from the common point of
the diodes, through the load and back to the central tap of the transformer.

Using the definitions reported in the previous section and the symmetries, we get the
following results

IDC= VDC/RL

=2.VS/πRL

IL=VL/RL = VS/√2 RL

FF = VL/VDC= π/2√2= 1.11

η =(1/FF)2 = 0.81

TUF = 0.671 (or 0.572 TUF = according to some authors).

Full-wave rectifier — bridge

The bridge structure is the best single-phase rectifier. At the cost of two more diodes,
several advantages are obtained. This is a full-wave rectifier but compared with the
centre-tapped solution it uses a simpler transformer, with a single secondary and no
additional taps.

The rectification takes place by the conduction of couples of diodes. Diodes D1

and D4 are conducting
during the positive half-wave of the voltage. Diode D2 and D3 are conducting
during the negative half. This is a double-way topology.
 In each half-cycle, the current flows in both directions in the secondary winding but
always in the same direction in the load. There is no DC component in the winding
and the core can be smaller than that for a centre-tapped rectifier with the same
DC power rating.

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In this article, you will find the study notes on Phase Control Rectifier-1 which will
cover the topics such as Important Terminologies Related to Phase Controlled
Rectifiers, Single phase uncontrolled half-wave rectifier, Single Phase
Uncontrolled Half Wave Rectifier with R-L load, Single phase half-wave Controlled
Rectifier with R-L load, SIngle Phase Semi-Controlled Rectifier.
Phase Control Rectifier

Phase Control Rectifiers can be classified as Single Phase Rectifier and 3 Phase
Rectifier. Further Single phase rectifier is classified as 1-Փ half-wave and 1-Փ full-wave
rectifier, In a similar manner, 3 phase rectifier is classified as 3-Փ half-wave rectifier & 3-
Փ full-wave rectifier.

1-Փ Full wave rectifier is classified as 1-Փ mid point type and 1-Փ bridge type
rectifier.
1-Փ bridge type rectifier is classified as 1-Փ half controlled and 1-Փ full controlled
rectifier.
3-Փ full wave rectifier is again classified as 3-Փ mid point type and 3-Փ bridge type
rectifier.
 3-Փ bridge type rectifier is again divided as 3-Փ half controlled rectifier and 3-Փ full
controlled rectifier.

Important Terminologies Related to Phase Controlled Rectifiers:

There are certain terms that are frequently used in the study of Phase Controlled
rectifiers, here we have listed the terminologies related to Phase COntrolled Rectifiers.
Let “f” be the instantaneous value of any voltage or current associated with a
rectifier circuit, then the following terms, characterizing the properties of “f”, can be
defined.

RMS (effective) value of f (fRMS) : For f , periodic over the time period T,

Form factor of f (fFF) : Form factor of ‘f' is defined as

Ripple factor of f (fRF): Ripple factor of f is defined as

Note: Ripple factor can be used as a measure of the deviation of the output voltage and
current of a rectifier from ideal dc.

Peak to peak ripple of (fpp): By definition

Fundamental component of f (F1): It is the RMS value of the sinusoidal

component in the Fourier series expression of f with frequency 1/T.
 Kth harmonic component of f (FK): It is the RMS value of the sinusoidal
component in the Fourier series expression of f with frequency K/T.

Crest factor of f (Cf): By definition

Distortion factor of f (D.Ff): By definition ⇒ DFf = F1/FRMS

Total Harmonic Distortion of f (THDf): The amount of distortion in the waveform
of f is quantified by means of the index Total Harmonic Distortion (THD).

Displacement Factor of a Rectifier (DPF): If vi and ii are the per phase input
voltage and input current of a rectifier respectively, then the Displacement Factor
of a rectifier is defined as.

DPF = Cos φi

Where φi is the phase angle between the fundamental components of vi and ii.

Power factor of a rectifier (PF): As for any other equipment, the definition of the
power factor of a rectifier is

if the per phase input voltage and current of a rectifier are vi and ii respectively
then
 If the rectifier is supplied from an ideal sinusoidal voltage source then ⇒ Vi1 = ViRMS

In terms of THDii

Firing angle of a rectifier (α): Used in connection with a controlled rectifier using
thyristors. It refers to the time interval from the instant a thyristor is forward biased
to the instant when a gate pulse is actually applied to it.
Extinction angle of a rectifier (γ): Also used in connection with a controlled
rectifier. It refers to the time interval from the instant when the current through an
outgoing thyristor becomes zero (and a negative voltage applied across it) to the
instant when a positive voltage is reapplied. It is expressed in radians by
multiplying the time interval with the input supply frequency (ω) in rad/sec. The
extinction time (γ/ω) should be larger than the turn off time of the thyristor to avoid
commutation failure.
Overlap angle of a rectifier (μ): The commutation process in a practical rectifier
is not instantaneous. During the period of commutation, both the incoming and the
outgoing devices conduct current simultaneously. This period, expressed in
radians, is called the overlap angle “μ” of a rectifier. It is easily verified that α + μ +
γ = π radian.
Single phase uncontrolled half wave rectifier

This is the simplest and probably the most widely used rectifier circuit albeit at relatively
small power levels. The output voltage and current of this rectifier are strongly
influenced by the type of the load. In this section, operation of this rectifier with resistive,
inductive and capacitive loads will be discussed.
 Circuit diagram and the waveforms of a single phase uncontrolled half wave rectifier
are shown above in the figure. If the switch S is closed at t = 0, the diode D becomes
forward biased in the interval 0 < ωt ≤ π. If the diode is assumed to be ideal then

For 0 < ωt ≤ π

vo = vi = √2 Vi sin ωt & vD = vi – vo = 0

Since the load is resistive

For ωt>π, vi becomes negative and D becomes reverse biased. So in the interval π <
ωt ≤ 2π

i1= io =0

v0 = i0R = 0

√
vD= vi-vo = vi = √2 Vi sin wt

From these relationships

Single Phase Uncontrolled Half Wave Rectifier with R-L load

From the preceding discussion

For 0 ≤ ωt ≤ β

vD=0

vo= vi.io = ii

For β ≤ ωt ≤ 2π

vo =0

io = ii = 0

vD = vi–vo=vi
Single phase half wave Controlled Rectifier with R-L load
Single Phase-Controlled Rectifier (firing angle α)

So with a phase controlled converter, we can regulate the output voltage by

varying firing angle α. We can even cause power flow from dc-side to ac-side as
long as Id>0 (e.g., pull power out of inductor and put into line).
In a semi-controlled rectifier, control is affected only for positive output voltage, and
no control is possible when its output voltage tends to become negative since it is
clamped at zero volts.
For a Resistive load the output of the semiconverter
 The Output of Full Wave Rectifier with R-L-E load

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In this article, you will find the study notes on Phase Control Rectifier-2 which will
cover the topics such as Three-Phase Rectifier, Three-Phase Diode Rectifier, Three
Phase Half Controlled Rectifier & 3- phase Full Controlled Rectifier .

Three-Phase Rectifier

As the application Point of view Three-phase controlled rectifiers have a wide range
of applications, from small rectifiers to large High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC)
transmission systems. They are used for electro-chemical process, many kinds of motor
drives, traction equipment, controlled power supplies, and many other applications.

From the point of view of the commutation process, they can be classified in two
important categories: Line Commutated Controlled Rectifiers (Thyristor Rectifiers), and
Force Commutated PWM Rectifiers.

The 3-Phase Controlled rectifier provide a maximum dc output of "Vdc(max)=2Vm/

∏" the output ripple frequency is equal to the twice the ac supply frequency.
Three-Phase Diode Rectifier

The circuit shown in the given figure by using 6 diodes Named as three phase Rectifier.
It shows the AC side currents and DC side voltage for the case of high load inductance.

we see that on the AC side, the RMS current, Is will be

while the fundamental current, i.e. the current at power frequency is:

Again, inductance on the AC side will delay commutation, causing a voltage loss, i.e.
the DC voltage will be less than that predicted by equation Vdo.

Waveforms of a three-phase full-wave rectifier with diodes and inductive load

Three Phase Half Controlled Rectifier

In the given figure below shows the circuit diagram of three phase half controlled
converter supplying an R-L-E load. In the continuous conduction mode only one
thyristor from top group and only one diode from the bottom group conduct at a time.
However, unlike fully controlled converter here both devices from the same phase leg
can conduct at the same time. Hence, there are nine conducting modes as shown in
Figure.
3- Phase Full Controlled Rectifier

In 3-phase full controlled rectifier 6 thyristors are needed to accommodate three

phases. In the given figure below shows the schematic of the system, and Figureshows
the output voltage waveforms.
Output Waveform for 3-Phase Full Controlled Rectifier
 The delay angle α is again measured from the point that a thyristor becomes
forward biased, but in this case the point is at the intersection of the voltage
waveforms of two different phases. The voltage on the DC side is then (the
subscript o here again meaning Ls = 0).

which leads to

Is1 = 0.78 Id

and the relationship between Vdo and Vdα

Vdα = Vdo Cos(α)

Again, if the delay angle α is extended beyond 90º,the converter transfers power
from the DC side to the AC side, becoming an inverter. We should keep in mind,
though that even in this case the converter is drawing reactive power from the AC
side.
For both 1-phase and 3-phase controlled rectifiers, a delay in α creates a phase
displacement of the phase current with respect to the phase voltage, equal to α.
The cosine of this angle is the power factor of the fundamental harmonic.

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In this article, you will find the study notes on DC-DC Converter or Chopper which will
cover the topics such as Copper Principle, Types of Chopper, Step Down Chopper,
Step Up Chopper, Buck-Boost Chopper, Resonant-Link DC-DC Converters

A Chopper or DC‐to‐DC Converter is a static device which is used to obtain a variable

variable dc voltage voltage from a constant constant dc voltage voltage source.

The thyristor converter offers greater efficiency, faster response, lower

maintenance, smaller size and smooth control control. Choppers Choppers are
widely used in trolley trolley cars, battery operated vehicles, traction motor control,
control of large number of dc motors, etc.
They are also used in regenerative braking of dc motors to return energy back to
supply and also as dc voltage voltage regulators regulators.
 Power conversion deals with the process of converting electric power from one
form to another.
The power electronic devices performing the power conversion are called power
converters.
The power conversion is achieved using power semiconductor devices, which are
used as switches.
The power devices used are SCRs (silicon controlled rectifiers, or thyristors),
triacs, power transistors, power MOSFETs, insulated gate bipolar transistors
(IGBTs), and MCTs (MOS-controlled thyristors).

DC to DC Conversion:

DC-dc converters are used to convert unregulated dc voltage to regulated or

variable dc voltage at the output.
They are widely used in switch-mode dc power supplies and in dc motor drive
applications.
In dc motor control applications, they are called chopper-controlled drives.
The input voltage source is usually a battery or derived from an ac power supply
using a diode bridge rectifier.

Choppers are of two types

Step‐down choppers

Step‐up choppers

Note: In step‐down choppers, the output voltage will be less than the input
voltage whereas in step‐up choppers output voltage will be more than the input
voltage.
Principle of Step Down Chopper
 Figure shows a step‐down chopper with resistive load.
The thyristor in the circuit acts as a switch.
When thyristor is ON,supply voltage appears across the load and when thyristor is
OFF, the voltage across the load will be zero.
It is also called Buck- Converter.

Output Voltage Waveform of Step Down Chopper

Where

Vdc = Average value of Output or Load Voltage.

Idc = Average value of output or Load Current.
TON = Time interval for which SCR IS ON.
TOFF = Time interval for which SCR is OFF.
T = TON + TOFF = Period of Switching or Chopping Period.
f = Frequency of Chopper Switching or Chopping Frequency.
D = TON/T

Average Output Voltage

Vdc = V(Ton/T) = V.D
The Output Voltage can be varied by varying the output voltage.
Principle of Step-Up Chopper

This converter is used to produce higher voltage at the load than the supply
voltage.
When the power switch is on, the inductor is connected to the dc source and the
energy from the supply is stored in it.
When the device is off, the inductor current is forced to flow through the diode and
the load.
The induced voltage across the inductor is negative.
The inductor adds to the source voltage to force the inductor current into the load.
It is also called as Boost Converter.

The output voltage is given by: Vout = Vin / (1 – D)

Thus for variation of D in the range 0 < D < 1, the load voltage Vout will vary in the
range Vin < Vout < ∞.
Buck-Boost Converter

A buck-boost converter can be obtained by the cascade connection of the buck

and the boost converter which is shown in the following figure.
When the power device is turned on, the input provides energy to the inductor and
the diode is reverse biased.
When the device is turned off, the energy stored in the inductor is transferred to
the output.
No energy is supplied by the input during this interval.
In dc power supplies, the output capacitor is assumed to be very large, which
results in a constant output voltage.
In dc drive systems, the chopper is operated in step-down mode during motoring
and in step-up mode during regeneration operation.

The steady-state output voltage Vout is given by: Vout = Vin D / (1 – D)

This allows the output voltage to be higher or lower than the input voltage, based on the
duty cycle D.
Resonant-Link DC-DC Converters

The use of resonant converter topologies would help to reduce the switching losses in
dc-dc converters and enable the operation at switching frequencies in the megahertz
range.

By operating at high frequencies, the size of the power supplies could be reduced.
 The dc power is converted to high-frequency alternating power using the MOSFET
half-bridge inverter.
The resonant capacitor voltage is transformer-coupled, rectified using the two
Schottky diodes, and then filtered to get output dc voltage.
The output voltage is regulated by control of the inverter switching frequency.
Instead of parallel loading as in the above figure, the resonant circuit can be
series-loaded; that is, the transformer in the output circuit can be placed in series
with the tuned circuit.
The series resonant circuit provides short-circuit limiting feature.

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In this article, you will find the study notes on DC-AC Converter or Inverter which will
cover the topics such as Inverter, Voltage Source Inverter, Current Source
Inverter,Voltage source inverter (VSI) with variable DC link,Single Phase VSI,Three
Phase VSI (1800 & 1200 COnduction Mode,Filtering, Pulse Width Modulation &
Harmonic Reduction.
DC to AC Converter (Inverter)

DEFINITION: As we have already aware from the term Inverter which is an Electrical
Setup used for daily purposes. In Inverter input DC is converted to AC power by
switching the DC input voltage in a sequence so as to generate AC output. The Inverter
is the power electronic circuit, which converts the DC voltage into AC voltage. The DC
source is normally a battery or output of the controlled rectifier.

Output voltage of the inverter may be a square wave, quasi-square wave or low
distorted sine wave.
Output Voltage of the inverter is controlled by the drives of the switches.
Another technique to control the output of the Inverter is Pulse Width Modulation
Technique,In this case the Inverter are called Pulse Width Modulated Inverter.
Since for the inverter operation input DC is converted to AC output which may
contain some harmonics,these harmonics can be reduced by using proper control
schemes.

TYPICAL APPLICATIONS – Un-interruptible power supply (UPS), Industrial (induction

motor) drives, Traction, HVDC.

Types of inverter

Inverters can be broadly classified into two types. They are

1. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

When the DC voltage remains constant, then it is called Voltage Source Inverter(VSI) or
Voltage Fed Inverter (VFI).

2. Current Source Inverter (CSI)

When the input current is maintained constant, then it is called Current Source Inverter
(CSI) or Current Fed Inverter (CFI).

Voltage source inverter (VSI) with variable DC link

Sometimes, the DC input voltage to the inverter is controlled to adjust the output. Such
inverters are called Variable DC Link Inverters. The inverters can have a single phase
or three-phase output.

DC link voltage is varied by a DC-to DC converter or controlled rectifier.

Generate “square wave” output voltage.
Output voltage amplitude is varied as DC link is varied.
Frequency of output voltage is varied by changing the frequency of the square
wave pulses.

VSI CSI

VSI is fed from a DC voltage source having small or CSI is fed with adjustable current from a DC voltage
negligible impedance. source of high impedance.

Input voltage is maintained constant The input current is constant but adjustable.

Output voltage does not dependent on the load The amplitude of output current is independent of the load.

The waveform of the load current as well as its magnitude The magnitude of output voltage and its waveform
depends upon the nature of load impedance. depends upon the nature of the load impedance.

VSI requires feedback diodes The CSI does not require any feedback diodes.
The commutation circuit is complicated Commutation circuit is simple as it contains only
capacitors.

Power BJT, Power MOSFET, IGBT, GTO with self They cannot be used as these devices have to withstand
commutation can be used in the circuit. reverse voltage

Single phase voltage source inverters

Due to symmetry along x-axis

𝑎o = 0 , 𝑎𝑛 = 0

𝑏𝑛 = 4Vs/nπ

The instantaneous output voltage

& =0, For n=2,4.....

The rms value of the fundamental output voltage

DC Supply Current

Assuming a lossless inverter, the ac power absorbed by the load must be equal to the
average power supplied by the dc source.

𝑉01 =Fundamental rms output output voltage

𝐼0=rms load current

𝜃1=the load angle at the fundamental frequency

Single phase full bridge inverter

Instantaneous load current 𝑖0 for an RL load

Where θn = tan-1(nwL/R)

The rms output voltage is

The instantaneous output voltage in a Fourier series

Three Phase Voltage Source Inverter

When three single-phase inverters are connected in parallel a three phase inverter is
formed.

The gating signal has to be displaced by 1200 with respect to each other so as achieve
three phase balanced voltages.

A 3-phase output can be achieved from a configuration of six transistors and six diodes.

Two type of control can be applied to transistors, they are such as 180o &
120oconduction

180-degree conduction.
Here Q1Q2Q3Q4Q5 & Q6 are the positions of thyristor When 𝑄1 is switched on, terminal
a is connected to the positive terminal of dc input voltage.
When Q4 is switched on terminal a is brought to negative terminal of the dc source.
There are 6 modes of operation is a cycle and the duration of each mode is 60o.

The conduction sequence of thyristor or if we replace 123,234,345,456,561,612. The

gating signals are shifted from each other by 60o to get 3-𝜑 balanced voltages.

Three phase 120o mode VSI

The circuit diagram is same as that for 180o mode of conduction.

Here each thyristor conducts for 120o.There are 6 steps each of 60o duration, for
completing one cycle of ac output voltage.

Waveform & Harmonics of Square Wave Inverter

Filtering

Output of the inverter is “chopped AC voltage with zero DC component”. In some,

applications such as UPS, “high purity” sine wave output is required.
An LC section low-pass filter is normally fitted at the inverter output to reduce the
high frequency harmonics.
In some applications such as AC motor drive, filtering is not required.

In square wave inverters, maximum output voltage is achievable. However there in NO

control in harmonics and output voltage magnitude.

The harmonics are always at three, five, seven etc times the fundamental
frequency.
Hence the cut-off frequency of the low pass filter is somewhat fixed. The filter size
is dictated by the VA ratings of the inverter.
To reduce filter size, the PWM switching scheme can be utilised.
In this technique, the harmonics are “pushed” to higher frequencies. Thus the cut-
off frequency of the filter is increased. Hence the filter components (I.e. L and C)
sizes are reduced.
The trade off for this flexibility is complexity in the switching waveforms.
Pulse-width modulation (PWM)
A better square wave notching is shown below -this is known as PWM technique.

Both amplitude and frequency can be controlled independently. Very flexible.

PWM-output voltage and frequency control

Output voltage harmonics

Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is a measure to determine the “quality” of a given

waveform.

Study of harmonics requires understanding of wave shapes. Fourier Series is a tool to

analyse wave shapes.

Harmonics of square-wave
When n is even cos nπ =1

When n is odd cos nπ = -1

bn = 4 Vdc/ nπ

Harmonic decreases as n increases. It decreases with a factor of (1/n).

Even harmonics are absent – Nearest harmonics is the 3rd. If fundamental is
50Hz, then nearest harmonic is 150Hz.
Due to the small separation between the fundamental an harmonics, output low-
pass filter design can be quite difficult.

Quasi-square wave
an = 0 Due to half wave symmetry.

If n is even then bn = 0

If n is odd then

In particular amplitude of the fundamental

In General nth Harmonics will be eliminated if ⇒ α = 90o/n

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In this article, you will find the study notes on AC-Voltage Controller & Cyclo-
Converter which will cover the topics such as AC Voltage Controller, Single
Phase Half Wave Single Phase Full Wave AC Voltage Controller, ON-OFF
Controller, Three Phase Half Wave & Full Wave AC Voltage Controller, Cyclo-
Converter, Single Phase to Single Phase Cyclo-Converter & 3-Phase to Single
Phase Cyclo-converter.
AC-Voltage Controller

In AC Voltage Controller RMS value of applied A.C input voltage is varied by

introducing Thyristors between the load and a constant voltage ac source,& this RMS
value of alternating voltage applied to a load circuit is controlled by controlling the
triggering angle of the Thyristors in the ac voltage controller circuits.

The RMS value of the ac output voltage and the ac power flow to the load is controlled
by varying (adjusting) the trigger angle ‘α’.

There are two different types of thyristor control used in practice to control the ac power
flow

• On-Off control

• Phase control
Application of AC Voltage Controller

• For Lighting control in ac power circuits.

• They are used in Induction heating,Industrial heating & Domestic heating.

• AC Voltage COntroller is also used in Tap Changing Transformer (on load transformer
tap changing).

• AC Voltage Controller is also used Machines to control their speed.

Types of AC Voltage Controller

The ac voltage controllers are classified into two types based on the type of input ac
supply applied to the circuit.

• Single Phase AC Controllers.

• Three Phase AC Controllers.

They are further classified as

• Uni-directional or half wave ac controller.

• Bi-directional or full wave ac controller. In brief different types of ac voltage controllers

are

• Single phase half wave ac voltage controller (uni-directional controller).

• Single phase full wave ac voltage controller (bi-directional controller).

• Three phase half wave ac voltage controller (uni-directional controller).

• Three phase full wave ac voltage controller (bi-directional controller).

Single Phase Half wave AC controller

In SIngle Phase HAlf wave AC voltage controller thyristor is connected in Anti-parallel

with one diode.load is resistive, by changing the value of firing angle α of thyristor S we
can controlled the load voltage.
 In positive half cycle of AC supply SCR T is turn ON at ωt=α. during this load
voltage is positive now SCR will be turn OFF due to natural commutation
at ωt=π. load current and source current are positive.
In negative half cycle of AC supply Diode D1 will turn ON at ωt=π. During these
cycle load voltage is negative. and load current and source current are negative.
By controlling the firing angle α of the SCR we can control AC load voltage.

Average value of output voltage is given by,

= √2 Es/2π (cosα-1)

If α is varied from 0 to π, output voltage varies from Es to Es/ √2 and average value of
output voltage varies from 0 to -√2 Es / π .
Single Phase Full Wave AC Voltage Controller

In this configuration for control by phase angle delay, the thyristor gate trigger delay
angle is α, where 0 ≤ α ≤ π,The fundamental of the output angular frequency is the
same as the input angular frequency, ω = 2πfs. The thyristor current, shown in figure is
defined by the equation

Ldi/dt + Ri = √2 V Sin wt ; if α≤wt≤β

= 0 otherwise
The above differential equation has two solutions, depending on the delay angle α
relative to the load natural power factor angle, φ = tan-1wL/R. Because of symmetry,
the mean supply and load, voltages and currents, are zero.

Case 1: α>φ When the delay angle exceeds the load power factor angle the load
current always reaches zero before π+φ, thus the differential equation boundary
conditions are zero. The solution for i is

Case 2: α≤φ (continuous gate pulses)

When α φ ≤ , a pure sinusoidal load current flows, and substitution of α= φ then

If a short duration gate trigger pulse is used and α < φ, then the current will be
unidirectional load current & device to be turned on is reverse-biased by the
conducting device.
Hence if the gate pulse ceases before the previous half-cycle load current has
fallen to zero, only one device conducts. It is therefore usual to employ a
continuous gate pulse, or stream of pulses, from α until π, then for α < φ a sine
wave output current results.
Principle of ON-OFF Controller
The thyristor switches T1 and T2 are turned on by applying appropriate gate trigger
pulses to connect the input ac supply to the load for ‘n’ number of input cycles
during the time interval tON.
The 3 thyristor switches T1 and T2 are turned off by blocking the gate trigger
pulses for ‘m’ number of input cycles during the time interval tOFF . The ac
controller ON time tON usually consists of an integral number of input cycles.
 In this type of type of control is used in applications which have high mechanical
inertia and high thermal time constant (Industrial heating and speed control of ac
motors). Due to zero voltage and zero current switching of Thyristors, the
harmonics generated by switching actions are reduced. For a sine wave input
supply voltage,

Vs = VmSin(wt) = √ VR Sin(wt)
 VR =RMS value of input ac supply

If the input ac supply is connected to load for ‘n’ number of input cycles and
disconnected for ‘m’ number of input cycles, then

tON = nxT & tOFF = mxT

Where T =1/f input cycle time (time period) and

tON = Controller ON Time

tOFF = Controller OFF Time

To = Output time period = tON+tOFF = (nT+mT)

where Vi(RMS) = RMS input supply voltage = VR

tON = An integral number of input cycles; Hence

tON = T,2T,3T,4T....& WtON = 2π,4π,6π,8π,...

Where T is the input supply time period (T = input cycle time period). Thus we note
that sin2wtON =0

Input Power Factor

The Average Current of Thyristor ITAVg

where Im=Vm/ RL

Half-controlled three-phase AC Voltage Controller

The half-controlled three-phase regulator requires only a single trigger pulse per
thyristor and the return path is via a diode. Compared with the fully controlled regulator,
the half-controlled regulator is simpler and does not give rise to dc components but
does produce more line harmonics. resistive symmetrical load, line-to-neutral voltage
waveforms for four different phase delay angles, α. Three distinctive conduction periods
exist.

0<α<π/3: Before turn-on, one diode and one thyristor conduct in the other two
phases. After turnon two thyristors and one diode conduct, and the three-phase ac
supply is impressed across the load.
π/3 ≤ α ≤2π/3: Only one thyristor conducts at one instant and the return current is
shared at different intervals by one (⅓π ≤ α ≤ ½π) or two (½π ≤ α ≤ ⅔π) diodes.

2π/3 ≤ α ≤ 7π/6: Current flows in only one thyristor and one diode and at 7π/6
zero power is delivered to the load.
Fully-controlled three-phase ac regulator with delta load

A delta connected load can be considered to be three independent single phase ac

regulators, where the total power (for a balanced load) is three times that of one
regulator, that is

0 ≤ α ≤ π/3

π/3≤ α ≤ 2π/3

2π/3 ≤ α ≤ π
CycloConverter

The CycloConverter has been traditionally used only in very high power drives, usually
above one megawatt, where no other type of drive can be used. Examples are cement
tube mill drives above 5 MW, the 13 MW German-Dutch wind tunnel fan drive,
reversible rolling mill drives and ship propulsion drives.

Basic Principle

Principle of a cyclo-converter is explained with reference to an equivalent circuit

shown in given figure below, Each two-quadrant converter (phase-controlled) is
represented as an alternating voltage source, which corresponds to the
fundamental voltage component obtained at its output terminals.
The diodes connected in series with each voltage source, show the unidirectional
conduction of each converter, whose output voltage can be either positive or
negative, being a two-quadrant one, but the direction of current is in the direction
as shown in the circuit, as only thyristors − unidirectional switching devices, are
used in the two converters. Normally, the ripple content in the output voltage is
neglected.

The control principle used in an ideal cyclo-converter is to continuously modulate

the firing angles of the individual converters, so that each produces the same
sinusoidal (ac) voltage at its output terminals.
It is possible for the mean power to flow either ‘to’ or ‘from’ the output terminals,
and the cyclo-converter is inherently capable of operation with loads of any phase
angle − inductive or capacitive.
Because of the uni-directional current carrying property of the individual
converters, it is inherent that the positive half-cycle of load current must always be
carried by the positive converter, and the negative half-cycle by the negative
converter, regardless of the phase of the current with respect to the voltage.
This means that each two-quadrant converter operates both in its rectifying
(converting) and in its inverting region during the period of its associated half-cycle
of current.
Single-phase to Single-phase Cyclo-converter

In Single Phase to Single Phase Cycloconverter two fullwave fully controlled

bridge converter circuits, using four thyristors for each bridge, are connected in
opposite direction (back to back), with both bridges being fed from ac supply (50
Hz).
Bridge-1(P–positive) supplies load current in the positive half of the output cycle,
while bridge-2(N–negative) supplies load current in the negative half.
These two bridges should not conduct together as this will produce short-circuit at
the input. In this case, two thyristors come in series with each voltage source.
When the load current is positive, the firing pulses to the thyristors of bridge 2 are
inhibited, while the thyristors of bridge 1 are triggered by giving pulses at their
gates at that time.
Similarly, when the load current is negative, the thyristors of bridge 2 are triggered
by giving pulses at their gates, while the firing pulses to the thyristors of bridge 1
are inhibited at that time. This is the circulating-current free mode of
operation.
Inductive (R-L) Load:

For this load, the load current may be continuous or discontinuous depending on the
firing angle and load power factor. The load voltage and current waveforms are shown
for continuous and discontinuous load current.
 . In this case, the output frequency is assumed as ( f2= 12.5 Hz), the input
frequency being same as (f1= 50 Hz), i.e.,f1=4.f2. So, four positive half cycles, or
two full cycles of the input to the full-wave bridge converter.
Three-Phase to Single-Phase (3φ -1φ ) Cycloconverter

In 3-phase to single phase,there are two kinds of three-phase to single-phase

(3φ-1φ) cycloconverters: 3φ-1φ half-wave cycloconverter and 3φ-1φ bridge
cycloconverter.
Like the 1φ-1φ case, the 3φ-1φ cycloconverter applies rectified voltage to the load.
Both positive and negative converters can generate voltages at either polarity, but
the positive converter can only supply positive current and the negative converter
can only supply negative current.
Thus, the cycloconverter can operate in four quadrants: (+v, +i) and (-v, -i)
rectification modes and (+v, -i) and (-v, +i) inversion modes. The modulation of the
output voltage and the fundamental output voltage are shown in Figure below.
here note that α is sinusoidally modulated over the cycle to generate a
harmonically optimum output voltage.
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