YEAR 1 SEMESTER 1 2024/2025

Week 1-2: ICT CONCEPTS

What will be covered in this Module
 Definition of Computer
 Computer Overview
 Computer Generations
 Brief History of Computers
 Hardware Components
 Software Concepts
 Computer network concepts
 Applications of Computers in Everyday Life.
1. What is Computer?
A computer is a programmable device that stores, retrieves, and processes data. The term "computer" was
originally given to humans (human computers) who performed numerical calculations using mechanical
calculators, such as the abacus and slide rule. The term was later given to mechanical devices as they began
replacing human computers. Today's computers are electronic devices that accept data (input), process that
data, produce output, and store (storage) the results (IPOS).
2. Computer Overview
Below is a picture of a computer with each of the main components. You can see the desktop computer,
flat-panel display, speakers, keyboard, and mouse in the picture below. We've also labelled each of the
input devices and output devices.

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Generations of Computers
The modern computer took its shape with the arrival of your time. It had been around 16th century when
the evolution of the computer started. The initial computer faced many changes, obviously for the
betterment. It continuously improved itself in terms of speed, accuracy, size, and price to urge the form of
the fashionable day computer. This long period is often conveniently divided into the subsequent phases
called computer generations:
 First Generation Computers (1940-1956)
 Second Generation Computers (1956-1963)
 Third Generation Computers (1964-1971)
 Fourth Generation Computers (1971-Present)
 Fifth Generation Computers (Present and Beyond)
Before there were graphing calculators, spreadsheets, and computer algebra systems, mathematicians and
inventors searched for solutions to ease the burden of calculation.
Below are the 8 mechanical calculators before modern computers were invented.
1. Abacus (ca. 2700 BC)
2. Pascal’s Calculator (1652)
3. Stepped Reckoner (1694)
4. Arithmometer (1820)
5. Comptometer (1887) and Comptograph (1889)
6. The Difference Engine (1822)
7. Analytical Engine (1834)
8. The Millionaire (1893)

First Generation Computers: Vacuum Tubes (1940-1956)

The technology behind the primary generation computers was a fragile glass device, which was called
vacuum tubes. These computers were very heavy and really large in size. These weren’t very reliable and
programming on them was a really tedious task as they used high-level programming language and used
no OS. First-generation computers were used for calculation, storage, and control purpose. They were too
bulky and large that they needed a full room and consume a lot of electricity.
Main first-generation computers are:
 ENIAC: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, built by J. Presper Eckert and John V.
Mauchly was a general-purpose computer. It had been very heavy, large, and contained 18,000
vacuum tubes.
 EDVAC: Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer was designed by von Neumann. It
could store data also as instruction and thus the speed was enhanced.
 UNIVAC: Universal Automatic Computer was developed in 1952 by Eckert and Mauchly.
Main characteristics of first-generation computers are:
Main electronic component Vacuum tube.
Programming language Machine language.
Main memory Magnetic tapes and magnetic drums.
Input/output devices Paper tape and punched cards.
Speed and size Very slow and very large in size (often taking up entire room).

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Examples of the first generation IBM 650, IBM 701, ENIAC, UNIVAC1, etc.
Second Generation Computers: Transistors (1956-1963)
Second-generation computers used the technology of transistors rather than bulky vacuum tubes. Another
feature was the core storage. A transistor may be a device composed of semiconductor material that
amplifies a sign or opens or closes a circuit.
Transistors were invented in Bell Labs. The use of transistors made it possible to perform powerfully and
with due speed. It reduced the dimensions and price and thankfully the warmth too, which was generated
by vacuum tubes. Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, programming language and input, and output
units also came into the force within the second generation.
Programming language was shifted from high level to programming language and made programming
comparatively a simple task for programmers. Languages used for programming during this era were
FORTRAN (1956), ALGOL (1958), and COBOL (1959).
Main characteristics of second-generation computers are: -
Main electronic
Transistor.
component
Programming language Machine language and assembly language.
Memory Magnetic core and magnetic tape/disk.
Input/output devices Magnetic tape and punched cards.
Smaller in size, low power consumption, and generated less heat (in comparison with
Power and size
the first-generation computers).
Examples of second
PDP-8, IBM1400 series, IBM 7090 and 7094, UNIVAC 1107, CDC 3600 etc.
generation
Third Generation Computers: Integrated Circuits. (1964-1971)
During the third generation, technology envisaged a shift from huge transistors to integrated circuits, also
referred to as IC. Here a variety of transistors were placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors. The
most feature of this era’s computer was the speed and reliability. IC was made from silicon and also called
silicon chips.
A single IC, has many transistors, registers, and capacitors built on one thin slice of silicon. The value size
was reduced and memory space and dealing efficiency were increased during this generation. Programming
was now wiped out. Higher level languages like BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction
Code). Minicomputers find their shape during this era.
Main characteristics of third generation computers are:
Main electronic component Integrated circuits (ICs)
Programming language High-level language
Memory Large magnetic core, magnetic tape/disk
Input / output devices Magnetic tape, monitor, keyboard, printer, etc.
Examples of third generation IBM 360, IBM 370, PDP-11, NCR 395, B6500, UNIVAC 1108, etc.
Fourth Generation Computers: Micro-processors (1971-Present)
In 1971 First microprocessors were used, the large scale of integration LSI circuits built on one chip called
microprocessors. The most advantage of this technology is that one microprocessor can contain all the
circuits required to perform arithmetic, logic, and control functions on one chip.

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The computers using microchips were called microcomputers. This generation provided the even smaller
size of computers, with larger capacities. That’s not enough, then Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI)
circuits replaced LSI circuits. The Intel 4004chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the pc
from the central processing unit and memory to input/ output controls on one chip and allowed the
dimensions to reduce drastically.
Technologies like multiprocessing, multiprogramming, time-sharing, operating speed, and virtual memory
made it a more user-friendly and customary device. The concept of private computers and computer
networks came into being within the fourth generation.
Main characteristics of fourth generation computers are:
Main electronic Very large-scale integration (VLSI) and the microprocessor (VLSI has
component thousands of transistors on a single microchip).
Memory semiconductor memory (such as RAM, ROM, etc.)
Input/output devices pointing devices, optical scanning, keyboard, monitor, printer, etc.
Examples of fourth
IBM PC, STAR 1000, APPLE II, Apple Macintosh, Alter 8800, etc.
generation
Fifth Generation Computers
The technology behind the fifth generation of computers is AI. It allows computers to behave like humans.
It is often seen in programs like voice recognition, area of medicines, and entertainment. Within the field
of games playing also it’s shown remarkable performance where computers are capable of beating human
competitors.
The speed is highest, size is that the smallest and area of use has remarkably increased within the fifth-
generation computers. Though not a hundred percent AI has been achieved to date but keeping in sight the
present developments, it is often said that this dream also will become a reality very soon.
In order to summarize the features of varied generations of computers, it is often said that a big
improvement has been seen as far because the speed and accuracy of functioning care, but if we mention
the dimensions, it’s being small over the years. The value is additionally diminishing and reliability is in
fact increasing.
Main characteristics of fifth generation computers are:
Main Based on artificial intelligence, uses the Ultra Large-Scale Integration (ULSI)
electronic technology and parallel processing method (ULSI has millions of transistors on a
component single microchip and Parallel processing method use two or more microprocessors to
run tasks simultaneously).
Language Understand natural language (human language).
Size Portable and small in size.
Input / output Trackpad (or touchpad), touchscreen, pen, speech input (recognize voice/speech), light
device scanner, printer, keyboard, monitor, mouse, etc.
Example of
Desktops, laptops, tablets, smarthone
fifth generation
4. Brief History of Computers
The naive understanding of computation had to be overcome before the true power of computing could be
realized. The inventors who worked tirelessly to bring the computer into the world had to realize that what

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they were creating was more than just a number cruncher or a calculator. They had to address all of the
difficulties associated with inventing such a machine, implementing the design, and actually building the
thing. The history of the computer is the history of these difficulties being solved.
19th Century
1801 – Joseph Marie Jacquard, a weaver and businessman from France, devised a loom that
employed punched wooden cards to automatically weave cloth designs.
1822 – Charles Babbage, a mathematician, invented the steam-powered calculating machine capable of
calculating number tables. The “Difference Engine” idea failed owing to a lack of technology at the time.
1848 – The world’s first computer program was written by Ada Lovelace, an English mathematician.
Lovelace also includes a step-by-step tutorial on how to compute Bernoulli numbers using Babbage’s
machine.
1890 – Herman Hollerith, an inventor, creates the punch card technique used to calculate the 1880 U.S.
census. He would go on to start the corporation that would become IBM.
Early 20th Century
1930 – Differential Analyzer was the first large-scale automatic general-purpose mechanical analogue
computer invented and built by Vannevar Bush.
1936 – Alan Turing had an idea for a universal machine, which he called the Turing machine, that could
compute anything that could be computed.
1939 – Hewlett-Packard was discovered in a garage in Palo Alto, California by Bill Hewlett and David
Packard.
1941 – Konrad Zuse, a German inventor and engineer, completed his Z3 machine, the world’s first digital
computer. However, the machine was destroyed during a World War II bombing strike on Berlin.
1941 – J.V. Atanasoff and graduate student Clifford Berry devise a computer capable of solving 29
equations at the same time. The first time a computer can store data in its primary memory.
1945 – University of Pennsylvania academics John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert create an Electronic
Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). It was Turing-complete and capable of solving “a vast class
of numerical problems” by reprogramming, earning it the title of “Grandfather of computers.”
1946 – The UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer) was the first general-purpose electronic digital
computer designed in the United States for corporate applications.
1949 – The Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC), developed by a team at the
University of Cambridge, is the “first practical stored-program computer.”
1950 – The Standards Eastern Automatic Computer (SEAC) was built in Washington, DC, and it was the
first stored-program computer completed in the United States.
Late 20th Century
1953 – Grace Hopper, a computer scientist, creates the first computer language, which becomes known as
COBOL, which stands for COmmon, Business-Oriented Language. It allowed a computer user to offer the
computer instructions in English-like words rather than numbers.
1954 – John Backus and a team of IBM programmers created the FORTRAN programming language, an
acronym for FORmula TRANslation. In addition, IBM developed the 650.
1958 – The integrated circuit, sometimes known as the computer chip, was created by Jack Kirby and
Robert Noyce.
1962 – Atlas, the computer, makes its appearance. It was the fastest computer in the world at the time, and
it pioneered the concept of “virtual memory.

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1964 – Douglas Engelbart proposes a modern computer prototype that combines a mouse and a graphical
user interface (GUI).
1969 – Bell Labs developers, led by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie, revealed UNIX, an operating
system developed in the C programming language that addressed program compatibility difficulties.
1970 – The Intel 1103, the first Dynamic Access Memory (DRAM) chip, is unveiled by Intel.
1971 – The floppy disc was invented by Alan Shugart and a team of IBM engineers. In the same year,
Xerox developed the first laser printer, which not only produced billions of dollars but also heralded the
beginning of a new age in computer printing.
1973 – Robert Metcalfe, a member of Xerox’s research department, created Ethernet, which is used to
connect many computers and other gear.
1974 – Personal computers were introduced into the market. The first were the Altair Scelbi & Mark-8,
IBM 5100, and Radio Shack’s TRS-80.
1975 – Popular Electronics magazine touted the Altair 8800 as the world’s first minicomputer kit in
January. Paul Allen and Bill Gates offer to build software in the BASIC language for the Altair.
1976 – Apple Computers is founded by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, who expose the world to the Apple
I, the first computer with a single-circuit board.
1977 – At the first West Coast Computer Faire, Jobs and Wozniak announce the Apple II. It has colour
graphics and a cassette drive for storing music.
1978 – The first computerized spreadsheet program, VisiCalc, is introduced.
1979 – WordStar, a word processing tool from MicroPro International, is released.
1981 – IBM unveils the Acorn, their first personal computer, which has an Intel CPU, two floppy drives,
and a colour display. The MS-DOS operating system from Microsoft is used by Acorn.
1983 – The CD-ROM, which could carry 550 megabytes of pre-recorded data, hit the market. This year
also saw the release of the Gavilan SC, the first portable computer with a flip-form design and the first to
be offered as a “laptop.”
1984 – Apple launched Macintosh during the Superbowl XVIII commercial. It was priced at $2,500
1985 – Microsoft introduces Windows, which enables multitasking via a graphical user interface. In
addition, the programming language C++ has been released.
1990 – Tim Berners-Lee, an English programmer and scientist, creates HyperText Markup Language,
widely known as HTML. He also coined the term “WorldWideWeb.” It includes the first browser, a server,
HTML, and URLs.
1993 – The Pentium CPU improves the usage of graphics and music on personal computers.
1995 – Microsoft’s Windows 95 operating system was released. A $300 million promotional campaign
was launched to get the news out. Sun Microsystems introduces Java 1.0, followed by Netscape
Communications’ JavaScript.
1996 – At Stanford University, Sergey Brin and Larry Page created the Google search engine.
1998 – Apple introduces the iMac, an all-in-one Macintosh desktop computer. These PCs cost $1,300 and
came with a 4GB hard drive, 32MB RAM, a CD-ROM, and a 15-inch monitor.
1999 – Wi-Fi, an abbreviation for “wireless fidelity,” is created, originally covering a range of up to 300
feet.
21st Century
2000 – The USB flash drive is first introduced in 2000. They were speedier and had more storage space
than other storage media options when used for data storage.

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2001 – Apple releases Mac OS X, later renamed OS X and eventually simply macOS, as the successor to
its conventional Mac Operating System.
2003 – Customers could purchase AMD’s Athlon 64, the first 64-bit CPU for consumer computers.
2004 – Facebook began as a social networking website.
2005 – Google acquires Android, a mobile phone OS based on Linux.
2006 – Apple’s MacBook Pro was available. The Pro was the company’s first dual-core, Intel-based mobile
computer.
Amazon Web Services, including Amazon Elastic Cloud 2 (EC2) and Amazon Simple Storage Service,
were also launched (S3)
2007 – The first iPhone was produced by Apple, bringing many computer operations into the palm of our
hands. Amazon also released the Kindle, one of the first electronic reading systems, in 2007.
2009 – Microsoft released Windows 7.
2011 – Google introduces the Chromebook, which runs Google Chrome OS.
2014 – The University of Michigan Micro Mote (M3), the world’s smallest computer, was constructed.
2015 – Apple introduces the Apple Watch. Windows 10 was also released by Microsoft.
2016– The world’s first reprogrammable quantum computer is built.

5. Computer System
Definition: Is a collection of entities (hardware, software and liveware) that are designed to receive,
process, manage and present information in a meaningful format.
Components of Computer System
 Computer hardware - Are physical parts/tangible parts of a computer. e.g Input devices, output
devices, central processing unit and storage devices
 Computer software - also known as programs or applications. They are classified into two classes
namely - system software and application software
 Liveware - is the computer user. Also, known as orgware or the humanware. The user commands
the computer system to execute on instructions.
a) COMPUTER HARDWARE
Hardware refers to the physical, tangible computer equipment and devices, which provide support for
major functions such as input, processing (internal storage, computation and control), output, secondary
storage (for data and programs), and communication.

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Hardware Categories (Functional Parts)
A computer system is a set of integrated devices that input, output, process, and store data and information.
Computer systems are currently built around at least one digital processing device. There are five main
hardware components in a computer system: Input, Processing, Storage, Output and Communication
devices.
1. Input Devices
Are devices used for entering data or instructions to the central processing unit. Are classifie according to
the method they use to enter data.
a) KEYING DEVICES
Are devices used to enter data into the computer using a set of Keys e.g Keyboard, key-to- storage and
keypad.
i) The keyboard
Keyboard (similar to a typewriter) is the main input device of a computer. It contains three types of keys--
alphanumeric keys, special keys and function keys. Alphanumeric keys are used to type all alphabets,
numbers and special symbols like $, %, @, A etc. Special keys such as <Shift>, <Ctrl>, <Alt>, <Home>,

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<Scroll Lock> etc. are used for special functions. Function keys such as <Fl>, <F2>, <F3> etc. are used
to give special commands depending upon the software used e.g.F5 reloads a page of an internet browser.
The function of each and every key can be well understood only after working on a PC. When any key is
pressed, an electronic signal is produced. This signal is detected by a keyboard encoder that sends a binary
code corresponding to the key pressed to the CPU. There are many types of keyboards but 101 keys
keyboard is the most popular one.
How the keys are organized
The keys on your keyboard can be divided into several groups based on function:
 Typing (alphanumeric) keys. These keys include the same letter, number, punctuation, and
symbol keys found on a traditional typewriter.
 Special (Control) keys. These keys are used alone or in combination with other keys to perform
certain actions. The most frequently used control keys are CTRL, ALT, the Windows key, and ESC.
 Function keys. The function keys are used to perform specific tasks. They are labelled as F1, F2,
F3, and so on, up to F12. The functionality of these keys differs from program to program.
 Cursor Movement (Navigation) keys. These keys are used for moving around in documents or
WebPages and editing text. They include the arrow keys, HOME, END, PAGE UP, PAGE DOWN,
DELETE, and INSERT and ARROW KEYS.
 Numeric keypad. The numeric keypad is handy for entering numbers quickly. The keys are
grouped together in a block like a conventional calculator or adding machine.

B. POINTING DEVICES
Are devices that enter data and instructions into the computer using a pointer that appears on the screen.
The items to be entered are selected by either pointing to or clicking on them.e.. g mice, joystick, touch
sensitive screen, trackballs
i) THE MOUSE
A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your computer screen. Although mice come
in many shapes, the typical mouse does look a bit like an actual mouse. It's small, oblong, and connected
to the system unit by a long wire that resembles a tail and the connector which can either be PS/2 or USB.
Some newer mice are wireless.
A mouse usually has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and a secondary button. Many
mice also have a wheel between the two buttons, which allows you to scroll smoothly through screens of
information.
When you move the mouse with your hand, a pointer on your screen moves in the same direction. (The
pointer's appearance might change depending on where it's positioned on your screen.) When you want to
select an item, you point to the item and then click (press and release) the primary button. Pointing and
clicking with your mouse is the main way to interact with your computer. There are several types of mice:
Mechanical mouse, optical mouse, optical-mechanical mouse and laser mouse.
Basic parts
A mouse typically has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and a secondary button
(usually the right button). The primary button is the one you will use most often. Most mice also include a
scroll wheel between the buttons to help you scroll through documents and WebPages more easily. On
some mice, the scroll wheel can be pressed to act as a third button. Advanced mice might have additional
buttons that can perform other functions.

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Image Result for Computer Mouse Parts
Holding and moving the mouse
Place your mouse beside your keyboard on a clean, smooth surface, such as a mouse pad. Hold the mouse
gently with your index finger resting on the primary button and you thumb resting on the side. To move
the mouse, slide it slowly in any direction. Don't twist it—keep the front of the mouse aimed away from
you. As you move the mouse, a pointer (see picture) on your screen moves in the same direction. If you
run out of room to move your mouse on your desk or mouse pad, just pick up the mouse and bring it back
closer to you.

Pointing to an object often reveals a descriptive message about it. The pointer can change depending on
what you're pointing at. For example, when you point to a link in your web browser, the pointer changes
from an arrow to a hand with a pointing finger.
Most mouse actions combine pointing with pressing one of the mouse buttons. There are four basic ways
to use your mouse buttons: clicking, double-clicking, right-clicking, and dragging.
Clicking (single-clicking)
To click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then press and release the primary button (usually the
left button).

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Clicking is most often used to select (mark) an item or open a menu. This is sometimes called single-
clicking or left-clicking.
Double-clicking
To double-click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then click twice quickly. If the two clicks are
spaced too far apart, they might be interpreted as two individual clicks rather than as one double-clicks.
Double-clicking is most often used to open items on your desktop. For example, you can start a program
or open a folder by double-clicking its icon on the desktop.
Right-clicking
To right-click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then press and release the secondary button
(usually the right button).
Right-clicking an item usually displays a list of things you can do with the item. For example, when you
right-click the Recycle Bin on your desktop, Windows displays a menu allowing you to open it, empty it,
delete it, or see its properties. If you are unsure of what to do with something, right-click it.

C) SCANNING DEVICES
Are devices that capture an object or a document directly from the source. They are classified according
to the technology used to capture data e.g., Scanners and Document readers.
i) Scanners
Used to capture a source document and converts it into an electronic form.
Example are - FlatBed and HandHeld scanners.

ii) Document readers

Are documents that reads data directly from source document and convey them as input in the form of
electronic signal.
Types of Document Readers
i) Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

What is optical mark reader? Advantages, disadvantages and use of OMR

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By optical mark reader we can enter data to our computer. This OMR technology is used to collect
information from a large number of sources.
We are using this optical mark reader today to comprise data from tick box or multiple-choice question
categories.

ii) Barcode readers

iii) Optical Character Readers

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b) Magnetic Readers
Reads data using magnetic ink.t uses principle of magnetism to sense data which have been written using
magnetised ink.

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THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT ( C P U)

Is the brain or the heart of a computer. Is also known as processor and consist of three units namely:
i) Control Unit ( C U)
ii) Arithmetic logic Unit ( A L U)
iii) Main Memory unit ( M M U)

The system unit is the core of a computer system. Usually, it's a rectangular box placed on or underneath
your desk. Inside this box are many electronic components that process data. The most important of these
components is the central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor, which acts as the "brain" of your
computer. Another component is random access memory (RAM), which temporarily stores information
that the CPU uses while the computer is on. The information stored in RAM is erased when the computer
is turned off.
Almost every other part of your computer connects to the system unit using cables. The cables plug into
specific ports (openings), typically on the back of the system unit. Hardware that is not part of the system
unit is sometimes called a peripheral device. Peripheral devices can be external such as a mouse,
keyboard, printer, monitor, external Zip drive or scanner or internal, such as a CD-ROM drive, CD-R drive
or internal modem. Internal peripheral devices are often referred to as integrated peripherals. There are
two types according to shape: tower and desktop.

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Tower System Unit Desktop System Unit

A motherboard (mainboard, system board, planar board or logic board) is the main printed circuit
board found in computers and other expandable systems. It holds many of the crucial electronic components
of the system, such as the central processing unit (CPU) and memory, and provides connectors for other
peripherals.

Motherboard

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TYPES OF PROCESSORS
i) Complex Instruction Set Computers (CISC)
ii) Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC)
i) Complex Instruction Set Computers (CISC)
CISC and RISC (Complex and Reduced Instruction Set Computer, respectively) are dominant processor
architecture paradigms. Computers of the two types are differentiated by the nature of the data processing
instruction sets interpreted by their central processing units (CPUs). They both have advantages and
drawbacks, which are detailed below.
To improve performance, CISC systems try to reduce the number of instructions programs must call. To
do this, they have large sets of microcode instructions that cover a broad range of tasks. A single microcode
instruction, in turn, when translated in the CPU, may become several tasks the processor performs. As a
consequence, instructions are of variable length and often require more than one clock cycle to complete.
ii) Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC)
RISC systems, on the other hand, seek to improve performance by reducing the number of clock cycles
required to perform tasks. They have small sets of simplified instructions, doing away with microcode
altogether in most cases. While this means that tasks require more instructions, instructions are all of the
same length and usually require only one clock cycle to complete. Because of this, RISC systems are
capable of processing instructions in parallel in a process called pipelining. The CPU works on more than
one instruction at once by starting the second instruction before it completes the first one. This greatly
increases throughput and makes RISC systems substantially faster than their CISC counterparts. RISC
systems do have a few disadvantages, however. Notably, because programs usually have more instructions,
compilers and applications written in assembly language are more difficult to build for RISC systems.
Examples of CISC processors include the 680x0 and the VAX. RISC processors include the PowerPC,
MIPS, SPARC, and the Alpha. Recent processors in the x86 (e.g., IA-32) family are often described as
CISC, but in reality, they are hybrids of the two architectures.
FUNCTIONS OF CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
- Process data
- Control sequence of operations within the computers
- It gives command to all parts of a computer
- It controls the use of the main memory in storing of data and instructions
- it provides temporary storage (RAM) and permanent storage (ROM) of data
THE CONTROL UNIT
Is the centre of operations for the computer system, it directs the activities of the computer system.
Functions of Control Unit
6. Software Concepts
Computer Software Definition
What is computer software? Computer software refers to programming code that is executed on the
computer hardware that facilitates the completion of tasks by a computer. What is a computer program? A
computer program is a specific sequence of instructions written in programming code that is carried out
by a computer processor to complete a specific task. Thus, a computer program is a piece of software
designed for a certain use or task.
Computer software examples include operating systems, which allow for easy use of a computer's
processing power, as well as applications like Notepad and Firefox. Software can be physically stored on

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the hard drive or at another location such as a USB drive, or it can be cloud-based and hosted over the
internet.
Computer Software Examples
Since personal computers have become ubiquitous in many countries, computer software can be found
across the globe. In fact, because of the widespread use of computers in both personal and business
contexts, as well as the integral role that the internet plays in the global economy, it is difficult to imagine
how today's world would function without computer software. A list of some of the most well-known
computer software examples includes:
 Operating systems (such as Microsoft Windows, Linux, macOS)
 Productivity Software (for example, Microsoft Office Suite including Word, Excel, and
PowerPoint)
 Internet Browsers (including Firefox, Chrome, and Safari)
These and other specific examples of computer software are used many times per day by individuals and
companies around the world.

Computer software consists of programs that communicate tasks to the computer through a
programming code.
Types of Computer Software
There are many examples of specific computer software that play a role in personal and professional
computer systems. Computer software can generally be divided into two categories: system software and
application software. System software includes technical programs that communicate with the computer's
hardware, including its processor, and provides a framework for application software. Application
software includes the programs that do not relate to the basic functioning of the computer, but allow you
to do tasks, such as internet browsers or word processors.
System Software

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System software is a category that includes many kinds of software, all of which directly relate to the
functioning of the computer itself. System software includes highly technical programs that allow users to
make use of the computer's capabilities. This type of software interacts with the computer's hardware, such
as its processor and motherboard, and provides a framework for users to be able to use other applications
on their computers. System software could thus be thought of as a bridge between a computer's hardware
and the applications that people use. Included among other system software are programs that help the
computer to operate at its maximum efficiency. Some examples of system software include:

 Operating Systems
 Utility Software
 Firmware
 Device Drivers
Operating systems like Microsoft Windows or macOS are essential because they manage hardware and
provide basic services for other programs. They are a software layer that creates an environment for
programmers to write application programs. Utility software includes many programs like debuggers, disk
defragmenters, antivirus software, and registry cleaners, all of which help a computer to run efficiently.
Firmware refers to programs that are built into physical hardware, machine-level software that allows for
communication between hardware types, as seen in the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) that can be
found in motherboards. Device drivers are used by specific devices like speakers, printers, or a computer's
mouse and allow those devices to integrate properly into the operating system
Application Software
Application software is another type of computer software, one that is less technical than system software.
Users are generally much more familiar with application software because it includes the programs that
allow users to perform tasks. Some examples of commonly used application software include:
 Web browsers
 Word processors
 Multimedia software
 Spreadsheet software
 Email clients
 Graphics software
Liveware
It is a slang term used to denote people using (attached to) computers, and is based on the need for a human,
or liveware, to operate the system using hardware and software. Other words meaning the same or similar
to liveware include wetware, meatware, jellyware., orgware or the humanware

7. Computer network concepts

What is computer networking?
Computer networking refers to interconnected computing devices that can exchange data and share
resources with each other. These networked devices use a system of rules, called communications
protocols, to transmit information over physical or wireless technologies.
How does a computer network work?
Nodes and links are the basic building blocks in computer networking. A network node may be data
communication equipment (DCE) such as a modem, hub or, switch, or data terminal equipment (DTE)
such as two or more computers and printers. A link refers to the transmission media connecting two nodes.

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Links may be physical, like cable wires or optical fibers, or free space used by wireless networks.
In a working computer network, nodes follow a set of rules or protocols that define how to send and receive
electronic data via the links. The computer network architecture defines the design of these physical and
logical components. It provides the specifications for the network’s physical components, functional
organization, protocols, and procedures.
What do computer networks do?
Computer networks were first created in the late 1950s for use in the military and defence. They were
initially used to transmit data over telephone lines and had limited commercial and scientific applications.
With the advent of internet technologies, a computer network has become indispensable for enterprises.
Modern-day network solutions deliver more than connectivity. They are critical for the digital
transformation and success of businesses today. Underlying network capabilities have become more
programmable, automated, and secure.
Modern computer networks can:
Operate virtually
The underlying physical network infrastructure can be logically partitioned to create multiple "overlay"
networks. In an overlay computer network, the nodes are virtually linked, and data can be transmitted
between them through multiple physical paths. For example, many enterprise networks are overlaid on the
internet.
Integrate on a large scale
Modern networking services connect physically distributed computer networks. These services can
optimize network functions through automation and monitoring to create one large-scale, high-
performance network. Network services can be scaled up or down based on demand.
Respond quickly to changing conditions
Many computer networks are software-defined. Traffic can be routed and controlled centrally using a
digital interface. These computer networks support virtual traffic management.
Provide data security
All networking solutions come with in-built security features like encryption and access control. Third-
party solutions like antivirus software, firewalls, and antimalware can be integrated to make the network
more secure.
What are the types of computer network architecture?
Computer network design falls under two broad categories:
1. Client-server architecture
In this type of computer network, nodes may be servers or clients. Server nodes provide resources like
memory, processing power, or data to client nodes. Server nodes may also manage client node behavior.
Clients may communicate with each other, but they do not share resources. For example, some computer
devices in enterprise networks store data and configuration settings. These devices are the servers in the
network. Clients may access this data by making a request to the server machine.
2. Peer-to-peer architecture
In Peer-to-Peer (P2P) architecture, connected computers have equal powers and privileges. There is no
central server for coordination. Each device in the computer network can act as either client or server. Each
peer may share some of its resources, like memory and processing power, with the entire computer network.
For example, some companies use P2P architecture to host memory-consuming applications, such as 3-D
graphic rendering, across multiple digital devices.
What is network topology?

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The arrangement of nodes and links is called network topology. They can be configured in different ways
to get different outcomes. Some types of network topologies are:
Bus topology
Each node is linked to one other node only. Data transmission over the network connections occurs in
one direction.
Ring topology(Diagram)
Each node is linked to two other nodes, forming a ring. Data can flow bi-directionally. However, single
node failure can bring down the entire network.
Star topology
A central server node is linked to multiple client network devices. This topology performs better as data
doesn’t have to go through each node. It is also more reliable.
Mesh topology
Every node is connected to many other nodes. In a full mesh topology, every node is connected to every
other node in the network.

What are the types of enterprise computer networks?

Depending on the organization's size and requirements, there are three common types of enterprise
private networks:
Local area network (LAN)
A LAN is an interconnected system limited in size and geography. It typically connects computers and
devices within a single office or building. It is used by small companies or as a test network for small-
scale prototyping.
Wide area networks (WAN)
An enterprise network spanning building, cities, and even countries, is called a wide area network
(WAN). While local area networks are used to transmit data at higher speeds within close proximity,
WANs are set up for long-distance communication that is secure and dependable.
SD-WAN or software-defined WAN is virtual WAN architecture controlled by software technologies. An
SD-WAN offers more flexible and dependable connectivity services that can be controlled at the
application level without sacrificing security and quality of service.
Service provider networks
Service provider networks allow customers to lease network capacity and functionality from the provider.
Network service providers may consist of telecommunications companies, data carriers, wireless
communications providers, Internet service providers, and cable television operators offering high-speed
Internet access.
Cloud networks
Conceptually, a cloud network can be seen as a WAN with its infrastructure delivered by a cloud-based
service. Some or all of an organization’s network capabilities and resources are hosted in a public or private
cloud platform and made available on demand. These network resources can include virtual routers,
firewalls, bandwidth, and network management software,with other tools and functions available as
required.
Businesses today use cloud networks to accelerate time-to-market, increase scale, and manage costs
effectively. The cloud network model has become the standard approach for building and delivering
applications for modern enterprises.
What are Amazon Web Services (AWS) computer networking services?

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AWS networking services are designed to provide enterprises with:
Network security
AWS infrastructure is monitored 24/7 to help ensure confidentiality and integrity and to meet the highest
global network security standards.
Network availability
AWS has the global infrastructure required to deliver high availability anywhere in the world.
Network performance
AWS network services deliver high-speed performance with minimal lag time.
How to use AWS networking services?
AWS networking services are available for the following use cases:
Networking foundations
These services offer solutions for Virtual Private Clouds (VPCs) and for linking on-premise networks
with VPCs. Amazon VPC, AWS transit gateway, and AWS private link provide optimized solutions to
meet your networking requirements.
Network security
Services like AWS shield, AWS WAF, and AWS firewall manager protect your AWS cloud network and
applications against cyber-attacks.
To learn more about AWS networking services and how they can benefit your organization, take a look at
the service overview
8. Applications of Computers in Everyday Life
Contents
 Banks and financial
 Business
 Communication
 Defense and military
 Education
 Internet
 Medical
 Transportation
 Multimedia
 Robotics
 Simulations

Banks and financial

Computers play a significant role in handling all of the world's money. Below are examples of how
computers are used in the financial market and places dealing with money.
 ATM - When you make a withdraw from an ATM,
you are using a computer.
 Digital currency - When depositing money in a bank,
it is stored as a digital record. A computer keeps track of
how much money is in your account.
 Trading - Stocks and commodities are traded
using computers. In fact, today there are even thousands
of computers using advanced algorithms that handle trading
without needing humans.

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Business
Business is another big sector for computers and most money earned and spent is done using a computer.
Below are some of the examples of how computers are used in business.
 Register - If the business deals with selling goods to a consumer (e.g., a grocery store), a cash
register, which is a computer, is used to complete transactions.
 Workers’ computer - Many businesses assign each employee a computer that allows them to
produce work and solve problems for the company.
 Server - If the business uses computers, connects to the Internet, or handles e-mail and files, a
server is used to help manage everything.
Communication
Today's communication around the world is almost all digital and handled by computers. Below are
examples of how computers are used in the communication industry.
 Smartphone - If you have a smartphone, you have a computer
in your pocket.
 E-mail - More electronic mail (e-mail) is sent today than postal
mail (snail mail),
and computers handle all creation and distribution of that e-mail.
 VoIP - All voice over IP communication (VoIP) is handled and done
by computers.
 Computer-assisted speech - Those who are disabled or cannot
speak can use a computer to help them communicate.
For example, Stephen Hawking uses a computer to communicated.
 Voice recognition - Voice recognition uses a computer to
translate recorded audio into text or other data.
Defence and military
Many technologies (e.g., GPS and the Internet) were initially created or started with a defence-related
purpose. Today, computers are still an important aspect of the defence industry.
 Encryption - Secure communication is vital in the defence industry and computers encrypt
communications that should remain secret.
 GPS - Using computers with GPS allows the military to track people and equipment and is still
used today.
 Computer-aided flight - Many of today's jets and other aircraft require computers to fly and
operate.
 Drones - A drone is either autonomous or remotely driven and uses computers to operate.
Education
As computers evolve, so does how computers are used in the education field. Below is a list of how a
computer can be used in schools and learning.
 Internet - Connecting a student to the Internet gives him or her access to an endless supply of
knowledge. As mentioned later, the Internet would not be possible without computers.
 Learning - Computers can also be used to help design and create a more visual learning experience
for students. Using electronic whiteboards with computers can also benefit a student by giving them
a more hands-on experience.
 Writing - Although reports can still be done using pen, pencil, or even a typewriter, a computer
makes it easier to write, format, save, share, and print reports.

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  Keep records - Computers track students scores, identify struggling students, and create a final
report.
 Testing - Computers can assist students and teachers with the testing process by stepping the
student through questions and keeping track of the results.
Internet
Without computers, the Internet would not exist. Below are a few examples of how computers help run the
Internet.
 DNS - When you type in a URL like https://www.computerhope.com/,
a DNS translates it to an IP address, which directs the computer
to the server.
 Web server - Every web page requires a web server or computer
capable of receiving and sending requests when someone wants
to view a web page.
 Programs - A computer is also needed to run scripts and programs.
For example, a search engine, shopping cart, or forum are all
examples of programs that need a computer.
 Services - Other services like e-mail, FTP, and SSH
also require a computer or are daemons on the web server.
Medical
The medical, or health care, field is another place where computers are vital and used every day. Below are
examples of how computers help those in the medical field.

 Medical records - More and more medical records are being digitally stored. Storing these files
digitally allow for quick access and transfer of medical information so doctors can know your
history.
 Monitoring - Computers help with monitoring a patient and can alert staff in the case of an
emergency.
 Research - A lot of the medical research is computer assisted. Without the assistance of a computer,
it would either not be possible or take too long to be viable.
 Diagnosis - Computers can assist in the diagnosis of a patient, from gathering a patient's history
and conditions to comparing that information against a database of existing information.
 Surgery - Although most surgery is still done with humans; it is becoming more practical and
accessible for computer robot-assisted surgery. After being programmed, these robots can make
surgery more accurate, faster, and less prone to human errors.

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Transportation
Computers also play an important part in transportation. Below are a few examples of how computers help
the transportation field.
 Cars - Most may not realize it, but all modern cars today have multiple
computers that help control and manage the vehicle.
 Traffic lights - The traffic lights that help control traffic are all run by computers.
 GPS - Cars that include a GPS mapping system have computers for display
and calculating routes.
 Airplanes - The airplanes that help transport millions of people and goods every
year are filled with computers that help control the plane.
 Public transportation -Train, bus, subway, and all forms of public
transportation are highly dependent on
computers to manage traffic flow, monitor operation, and handle payments.
 Self-driving cars - Although relatively new, self-driving
cars are becoming increasingly popular and rely on a computer
to make all decisions on how to drive.
Multimedia
Computers also play a significant role in video and audio. Below are examples of how computers are used
in the film and audio industry.
 Editing - Once a movie, video, song, or audio track is created a computer can edit that media instead
of having to manually make cuts to the film or audio track.
 CGI - Computer animation and CGI has become a norm in big budget films. To create these effects
computers and sometimes server farms are used.
 Manipulation - Computers can manipulate pictures, video, and audio. For example, someone could
use Adobe Photoshop to add or remove elements from an image.
 Recording and playback - Computers can also be used to assist in the recording of audio tracks
and then selectively playback each audio track.
 Creation - Computers can also be used to help in creating new multimedia content. For example,
creating 3D animation, 3D models, or a techno audio track can be done on a computer. After
creating a 3D model, a 3D printer could also be used to build a product.
 TV, DVD, media players - Today's Smart TVs, DVD players, DVRs, etc., contain simple
computing circuitry to connect the device to the Internet, run apps, and more.

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Note:
1. Animation is the illusion of movement created by showing several still pictures in rapid succession. In
the world of computers, graphics software used to create this effect
Animation software
Below is a listing of some of the popular and widely used animation and 3D animation programs.
Blender (Free) - https://www.blender.org/
3ds Max - https://www.autodesk.com/products/3ds-max/
3DPlus (Free) - https://ccm.net/download/download-11229-3dplus-2
Animation:Master - http://www.hash.com/
LightWave 3D - https://www.newtek.com/
Maestro Designer - https://www.avid.com/
Maya - https://www.autodesk.com/products/maya/
Adobe Animate - http://www.adobe.com/products/animate.html
Motion Capture - http://www.metamotion.com/
Poser - https://www.posersoftware.com/
SOFTIMAGE - https://www.autodesk.com/products/softimage/
2. What is CGI and how is it used?
Computer-Generated Imagery, abbreviated as CGI, creates still or animated visual content with computer
software. CGI is also called 3D imaging or 3D Rendering. CGI usually refers to the 3D computer
graphics used to create characters, scenes, and other special effects in movies, television, and games.
Robotics
The industry of robotics is exploding and computers once again play an important role in controlling
robots. Below are examples of how computers help control robotic machinery.
 Control - Computers are what help control robotics.
For example, without a computer,
a robotic arm would not know where to place a part.
 Learning - Computers can take the input given by
a robot and take that information to help learn and adapt
to new conditions.
Simulations
Some problems are so complex that it would be impossible for humans to calculate or would take too long
to calculate. Computers help solve these complex problems in a timely fashion.
 Weather prediction - Earth has an extremely complex weather system, and computers gather all
of the variables and create weather reports.
 Product simulations - Before some products go into development, computers simulate how they
would work in the real world. By creating a simulation, a company or government agency can make
adjustments before the product goes into development.
 Big data simulation - With cheap data storage companies can now store a massive amount of data.
With this big data, a computer can find unknown patterns.

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Further Reading:
1. Operation of the Abacus
2. Differences between firmware and Liveware
3. Why a computer was invented
4. How was data being managed before the invention of the computer
5. Demerits of computing technology

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