Course Code: E€ 223 Course Title: Electromagnetics Credit Units: 2 Pre-Requisite: Physics for Engineers (Phys 121) and Differential Equation (Math 213) Course Description: The course deals with the study of electric and magnetic fields; resistive, dielectric and magnetic materials, coupled circuits, magnetic circuits and fields, and time-varying electromagnetic fields. It involves a review of vector analysis and types of coordinate system (Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems). Topics covered are dot and cross products of vector, Coulomb's law and electric field intensity of different charge configuration (volume, point, line sheet charge), electric flux density, Gauss’s Law, divergence, Maxwell's equations and energy and. potential Overview: Electromagnetics is a branch of physics or electrical engineering which is used to study the electric and magnetic phenomena and describes how electric charges and currents create electric and magnetic fields. These fields give rise tothe concepts of resistance, conductance, capacitance that are fundamental to circuit theory. Electromagnetism is the physical interaction among electric charges, magnetic moments, and the ‘electromagnetic fields. The electromagnetic field can be static, slowly changing or form waves. Db 10 Lesson 1: Vector Analysis 1:1 Introduction Vectors are introduced in physics and mathematics course, primarily in the cartesian coordinate system. Although cylindrical coordinates may be found in calculus texts, the spherical coordinate is seldom presented. All three coordinate systems must be used in electromagnetics. The various quantities involved in the study of engineering electromagnetics can be classified as Scalars and Vectors. Scalar ~ refers to a quantity having magnitude but no direction and whose value may be represented by a single (positive or negative) real number. The various examples of scalar quantity are length, temperature, mass, volume, density, speed, electric charge, etc. Vector ~ a quantity which has both magnitude and specific direction in space. In electromagnetics vectors defined in two and three-dimensional spaces. The various examples of vector quantity are force, velocity, displacement, electric field intensity, magnetic field intensity, acceleration, etc. ST ENGR, AXELIAN A, VITO1.2 Vector Notation and Representation In order to distinguish vectors from scalars the vectors are denoted by boldface symbols. Geometrically a vector is represented by and arrow, the arrow defines the direction of the vector and the magnitude of the vector is represented by the length of the arrow. oa Frerminating y me » 8 Z int ~ o Figure 1.4. Two vectors may be added graphicaly ether by ckawing {Starting both vectors from a common origin and completing the parallelogram or point) by beginning the secand vector rom the head ofthe rst and completing the tnangl; ether method is easiy extended to thrae or more vectors, The operations of addition, subtraction and multiplication familiar in the algebra of numbers (scalars) can be extended to algebra of vectors. To begin, the addition of vectors follows the parallelogram law. Figure 1.1 shows the sum of two vectors, A and B. It is easily seen that A+ B= B + A, or that vector addition obeys the commutative law. Vector addition also obeys the associative law, A + (B+C)= (A+B) +C. The following basics law of algebra are obeyed by the vectors A, B, C: Law, Addition Multiplication by scalar Commutative K+B= 848 oK=Ka Associative K+ O = A+ B+ T B(GA)=Ga)A Distributive (K+ B)=aA+oB Table 1.1 In this table a and fi are the scalars i.e. constants. 1.3 Coordinate Systems (Rectangular, Cylindrical, Spherical) To describe a vector accurately, some specific lengths, directions, angles, projections, or components must be given. There are three simple methods of doing this, and about eight or ten other methods that are useful in very special cases. Rectangular Coordinates — A point P is described by three coordinates in cartesian (x,y, 2) Cylindrical Coordinates — A point P is described by three coordinates in circular cylindrical (p, 8,2) ‘Spherical Coordinates - A point P is described by three coordinates in spherical (p, 8, 0). ENGR, AXELIAN A, VITO1.4 Vector Components and Unit Vectors To describe a vector in the rectangular coordinate system, let us first consider a vector r extending outward from the origin. A logical way to identify this vector is by giving the three component vectors, lying along the three coordinate axes, whose vector sum must be the given vector. If the component vectors of the vector r are x,y, and z, thenr=xty+z Resultant Vector — is a vector representing the sum of two or more vectors. It is done by adding the coefficient of i, j, and k separately. Unit Vector —is a vector whose magnitude is equal to one and is parallel to a given position vector. It describes the direction of the position vector and are denoted respectively by ay, ay, and a; or, j, and k. Any vector A in three-dimensions can be represented with initial point at the origin O of a rectangular coordinate system. Then it may be described by A= Aca, +A, ay+ A: a The magnitude of A written |A| or simply A, is given by: alae ony a? —+ magnitude of vector A the direction of the vector A is: A Ajit Ayj+ Ark Unit vector = “= Sx0* Sy) te I> fay? ay? +A,? Now consider the two points in a cartesian coordinate system, P and Q with coordinates (x1, ys, 21) and (x, Ya, 22) respectively. The points are shown in the figure. The individual position vectors of the points are, Pe xia + ay +218 Q=x:a, +22) + 213, Arey¥e.22) Then the distance or displacement from P to Qis represented by a U distance vector Rea and is given by, Rog = te = (Xo— Xs} + (Yo Valay (22 za)ae ENGR, AXELIAN A, VITO 3Pred atcc Tc ‘Sample Problems: 1. Obtain the unit vector in the direction from the origin towards the point P(3, -3,-2). 2. Given the coordinates of point (1, 2, 3) and Q(2, -2, 1). Find the distance vector from P to Q, the magnitude and the unit vector of that distance vector. 3. Two points A(2, 2, 1) and 8(3, 4, 2) are given in the cartesian system. Obtain the vector from A to B and a unit vector directed from A to B. 44, Find the unit vector associated with the vector 20i— 3) + 12k. 5. Given the two vectors A = -a,~ 3a)— 4a,and B = 2a, + 2ay + 2a, and point C(1, 3, 4), find: (a) Ras, (b) IAL, (c) aa, {d) ass ,(e) unit vector directed from C to A. 6. Find the length of the resultant of the following vectors: 3i + 4j~ 5k; 71 +2)+3I 16i— 14) + 2k. 7. Avector field $ is expressed in rectangular coordinates as $ = 2x"y a, 2(z—x) a, + 3xyz a. Find (a) vector $ at point (2, -3, 4); (b) unit vector in the direction of $ at point (2,3 ,4) 8. Twovector fields G; = 3x + yli+ 8) and G, = 21+ 9xy, Find the aciat point (2, 3,0)and age at point (1,2, 1). Key Points and Summary: Scalar quantities possess magnitude only, examples including temperature, mass and speed, and are typically represented by italicized letters. Vector quantities represented by boldface letters or arrows have both magnitude and direction with examples including velocity, displacement, and force. Important vector concepts include unit vectors, ‘components, dot products and cross products. Orthogonality Criterion The inner product of two nonzero vectors is 0 if and only if these vectors are perpendicular. ENGR, AXELIAN A, VITO 4ference 1,5 Dot Product and Cross Product We now consider the first of two types of vector multiplication. The second type will be discussed in the following section. Given two vectors A and B, the dot product (also known as scalar product) is defined as the product of the magnitude of A, the magnitude of B, and the cosine of the smaller angle between them. Mathematically itis expressed as, A-B=|A| |B] cos 643 The dot appears between two vectors should be made heavy for emphasis. The dot, or scalar, product is a scalar and it obeys the commutative law, Also note that, A=Ait At Ak AeB=A,By +A\B, +A,B, ot B=BitBj+Zk The various properties of the dot product are, 1. Ifthe two vectors are parallel to each other ie. @ = 0° then cos Ox 2. Ifthe two vectors are perpendicular to each other ie. @ = 90° then cos Ong two vectors is zero. The dot product obeys the commutative law, A* B=B* A ‘The dot product obeys distributive law, A (B+C)=AeB+AeC If the dot product of vector with itself is performed, the result is square of the magnitude of that vector All unit vector a, a,, a; are mutually perpendicular to each other. Hence the dot product of different unit 0 thus the dot product of the is zero. 7. Any unit vector dotted with itself is unity. The applications of dot product are, to determine the angle between two vectors. The angle can be determine Perhaps the most common application of dot product is in mechanics, where 4 { a constant force F applied over a straight displacement L does an amount of TAT IBI) | work £1 cos, which is more easily written as F« L. Another example might be taken from magnetic fields, The total flux @ crossing @ surface area S is given by BS ifthe magnetic flux density B is perpendicular to the surface and uniform over it. We define a vector surface Sas having ‘area for its magnitude and having a direction normal to the surface (avoiding for the moment the problem of which of the two possible normals to take). The flux crossing the surface is then B # S. as, Vector projection — The projection of the vector AB on the x — axis is a number equal to the length of the ‘segment ab on the x~axis, where points a and b are projections of points A and B on the x~ axis. The vector projection of a vector A on a nonzero vector B is the orthogonal projection of A onto a straight line parallel to B. B vector projection ofAonB ve x-axis a *, 6 ENGR, AXELIAN A, VITO 5Cerenac corn The vector projection of A on B is the unit vector of B by the scalar projection of A on B: ; B py -(AsB) Proj, B Bi [prin 8 “BL The scalar projection of A on B is the magnitude of the vector projection of A on B. Given two vectors A and B, we now define the cross product (also known as vector product), of A and B, written with a cross between the two vectors A x B and read “A cross B”. The cross product A x Bis a vector; the magnitude of ‘Ax Bis equal to the product of A, B, and the sine of the smaller angle between A and B. As an equation we can write ‘ A x B= ay/A| |B] sin®q5 yy) ijk To avold confusion, the direction of the Jaxel=lalpising; AXB=/Ax Ay Ay cross product is along the perpendicular direction Bx 8, B,| to the plane which isin the direction of advance- ment of a right-handed screw when A is turned into B. A poo Tl Mas zen (Downward) [Move A into Jaen 5 Figure 1.8 The direction of Ax Bis in the ‘rection of advance of a nght-handed screw {a8 Ais turned into B, ny Pane of A and 5 The various properties of cross product are, 1. The commutative law is not applicable to the cross product. Thus, AxB#BxA 2. Reversing the orders of the vectors A and B, a unit vector ay reverses its direction hence we can write, Bx A=-(AxB). itis anticommutative in nature. If order of cross product is changed, the magnitude remains same, but direction gets reversed. 3, The eross product is not associative, Thus, A x (Bx C) # (Ax B) xC respect to addition the cross product is distributive. Thus, Ax (B+C)=AxB+AxC 5. Ifthe two vectors are parallel to each other i.e. they are in the same direction then © product of such two vectors is zero. 6. Ifthe cross product of vector A with itself is calculated, itis zero as 7. Cross product of unit vectors: a: x ay= a, a, x a:= a,, a, x a,= ay but if the order of unit vectors is reversed, ‘the result is negative of the remaining third unit vector. 8. Cross product of unit vector with itself is zero. y and hence cross The applications of cross product are, its the replacement to the right-hand rule use: to determine the direction of force experienced by current carrying conductor in a magnetic field IF is the current flowing through conductor while Lis the vector length considered to indicate the direction of current through the conductor. The uniform magnetic flux density is denoted by vector B. Then the force experienced by conductor is given by, F= 1B L. ENGR, AXELIAN A, VITOEE 223 ELE Another application of vector product is finding the moment of a force in engneering mechanics. The moment. of a force (or torque) acting on a rigid body, which can rotate about an axis perpendicular to a plane containing the force is defined to be the magnitude of the force multiplied by the perpendicular distance from the force to the axis. ‘Special applications of the use of the cross product may be taken from geometry or trigonometry. To find the area of a parallelogram, the product of the lengths of two adjacent sides is multiplied by the sine of the angle between them. Using vector notation for the two sides, we then may express the (scalar) area as the magnitude of A x B. ‘SPECIAL APPLICATIONS OF VECTOR PRODUCTS * Area of a Parallelogram A Area =|A x B| * Area of a Triangle Area 1 ZA x Bi Note: |A x B| means magnitude of A “cross” B “Volume of a Rectangular Parallelepiped Volume = A (B x C) Note: A « (B x C) is called “triple scalar product”. ENGR, AXELIAN A, VITO 7‘Sample Problems: 1. Consider the vector field 6 = ya, ~ 2.5xa, + 3a, and the point Q(4, 5, 2). Find the scalar component of G at Qin the direction of ay = 0.667a,+ 0.333a~ 0.6672, and the angle between G and an. 2. Given two vectors. vectors. ~5j— 4k and B = 31+ 5+ 2k. Find the dot product and the angle between the two 3. Show that A= 4a,—2ay—a, and . + 4ay— 4a, are perpendicular. 4, Find the angle between A = 2i + 2)—k and B = 6i~3j + 2k using the dot product. 5. Given vectors A 11-4] + 2kand 3i- 2) + 10k. Solve the scalar projection of A on B. 6. Given vectors A= 101-2) + 8k and = 21-6] + 3k, Solve the projection vector of A on B. 7. Find the vector component of F= 10a, ~ 6a, + 5a: that is parallel to G = 0.1. + 0.2a, + 0.32 8 Atriangle is defined by the three points, A(2, -5, 1), B(-3, 2,4), and C(O, 3,1). Fin« the triangle, 3) Rac Res ;(b) the area of 9. Given vectors: A = 2i + 4j + 8k; B=-2i+)—4k. Solve the cross product of A and B. 10. Given 2a, + 4a, and B = 6a, — 4a,, find the smaller angle between them using the cross product. 11, Solve the angle between two vectors A and Bif A = 12i-4j+k and i 3) + 2k using the cross product. 12. Given the two coplanar vectors: A containing the vectors A and B. + 4j ~ Sk and B = -6i + 2} + 4k. Obtain the unit vector normal to the plane 13. Find the volume of the parallelepiped whose edges are represented by 2k. i — 3) + 4k, B=i+ 2)—k, C= 3i-j+ 1.6 Vector Transformation Ingeneral, the physical quantities we shall be dealing with in Electromagnetics are functions of space and time. In order to describe the spatial variations of the quantities, we must be able to define all points uniquely in space in a suitable manner, This requires using an appropriate coordinate system The Circular Cylindrical coordinate system is the three-dimensional version of the polar coordinates of analytic geometry. A point P is described by three coordinates in circular cylindrical (9, , 2) as shown in the figure. p is the radius of the cylinder passing through P or the radial distance from the z-axis; @ is the azimuthal angle which is the angle made by the half plane containing the required point with the y-axis; and z is the same as in the Cartesian coordinate system. For simplicity, we usually refer to circular cylindrical coordinates simply as cylindrical coordinates, but it is only fair to point out that there are such systems as elliptic cylindrical coordinates, hyperbolic cylindrical coordinates, parabolic cylindrical coordinates, and others. In rectangular coordinates, the unit vectors are not functions of the coordinates. Two of the unit vectors in cylindrical coordinates ap and ae, however do vary with the coordinate @, as their directions change. ST ENGR, AXELIAN A, VITO 8Pred atcc Tc — = evnstnt / Fp aconstant The relationship between variables (x, y, 2) of the Cartesian coordinate system and those of the cylindrical system (p, @, 2) are easily related to each other by the following equations. — 7 p= Very oean's, 252 Consider a vector A in cartesian coordinate system as, A= A,a, + Ayay + A,a, While the same vector in cylindrical coordinate system can be represented as, A= Apay + Agag + Aca: From the dot product it is known that the component of vector in the direction of any unit vector is its dot product with that unit vector. Hence the component of A in the direction of ap is the dot product of A with ap. This component is nothing but Ap, A,=A-a, and Ag =A-ay Expanding these dot product, we have Ap = (Axis + Ayay + Azaz) +p = Ayay +a + Ayay Ap Ag = (Aya + Ayay + Apa.) ag = Axay +g + Ayay «ay A, = (Aya + Ayay + A. ‘Transforming vectors from rectangular to is therefore accomplished by ‘change of variables and by using the dot products of the unit vectors. The results of the dot products are summarized in the tabular form as shown, Dot products of unit vectors in cylindrical and rectangular coordinate systems 0 a aye cos sing 0 ay sing cos 0 a 0 0 ENGR, AXELIAN A, VITOPred atcc Tc ‘Sample Problems: 1. Transform the vector B = ya, ~ xa, #22, into cylindrical coordinates. 2. Transform the vector field W = 10a,~ 8a, + 6a, to cylindrical coordinate system at point P (10, -8, 6) 3. Transform the vector field G = (2x + y}a,— (y—4xJa, into cylindrical coordinates. 4. Give the rectangular coordinates of the point C (4.4, -115°, 2). Give the cylindrical coordinates of the point D(-3.1, 2.6, -3) and specify the distance from Cto D. 5. Express the vector A= pz sin @ ay + 3p cos @ ay+ p cos @ sin Ba, into cartesian coodinates. ST ENGR, AXELIAN A, VITO 10