lOMoARcPSD|49008929

PWLI - Prelim Notes

Doctor of Dental Medicine (Our Lady of Fatima University)

Scan to open on Studocu

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Dandrie Cart ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|49008929

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO WORLD Prose samples:

LITERATURE ⋅ Biography – a story of a certain person’s life written by another who
knows him (the former) well
⋅ Literature comes from the Latin word “LITERA” which literally means
an acquaintance, with letters, the root definition of literature. It is a ⋅ Autobiography – a written account of man’s life written by himself.
body of literary productions, either oral, written, or visual, containing ⋅ Letter – a written message which displays aspects of an author’s
imaginative language that realistically portrays thoughts, emotions, psychological make-up not immediately apparent in his more
and experiences of the human conditions. public writings. It is a prose form which by the force of its
⋅ Literature appeals to man’s higher nature and its needs – emotional, style and the importance of its statement becomes an object
spiritual, intellectual, and creative. of interest or observations.
⋅ Like all other forms of art, literature entertains and gives pleasure; it ⋅ Diary – a daily written record or account of the writer’s own
fires the imagination and arouses noble emotions and it enriches man experience.
by enabling him to reflect on life and by filling him with new ideas. ⋅ Journal – a magazine or periodical especially of a serious or learned
nature.
All literature falls under two main divisions:
Prose Poetry Other prose forms:
Form Written in paragraph form Written in stanza or Historical prose, Satirical prose, Literary criticism, Philosophy, Parody,
verse form Character Sketch, Pamphlet, Scientific prose, Current publications, Book
Language Expressed in ordinary Expressed in metrical review, Travel, Anecdote, Parable, Eulogy
language rhythmical and figurative
language ⋅ Speech – the general word for a discourse delivered to an audience
Appeal To the intellect To the emotion whether prepared or impromptu.
Aim To convince, inform, Stir the imagination and ex: Address, Lecture, Oration, Talk, Sermon
instruct, imitate and set an ideal of how life
KINDS OF POETRY
reflect should be.
⋅ A lyric poem is a comparatively short, non-narrative poem in which
Structure Form Genre a single speaker presents a state of mind or an emotional state.
Fiction – is a Prose – is a literary Fiction – is a narrative ⋅ Elegy is a formal lament for the death of a particular person (for
literary work of work that is spoken in prose that shows an example Tennyson’s In Memoriam A.H.H.).
imaginative or written within the imaginative recreation ⋅ Ode is a long lyric poem with a serious subject written in an
narration, either common flow of and reconstruction of elevated style. Famous examples are Wordsworth’s Hymn to
oral or written. language in sentences life and presents human Duty or Keats’ Ode to a Grecian Urn.
or paragraphs. life. ⋅ The sonnet was originally a love poem that dealt with the lover’s
Non- fiction – is a Poetry – is a literary Poetry – is patterned sufferings and hopes. Has 14 lines.
literary work of work expressed in form of verbal or
“real life” narration verse, measure and written expression of
or exposition based rhythm, sound and ideas and concentrated Sub-categories of narrative poetry:
on history and imaginative language. imaginative, and ⋅ Epics usually operate on a large scale, both in length and topic, such
facts. rhythmical terms that as the founding of a nation (Virgil’s Aeneid) or the beginning of world
contain the elements of history (Milton's Paradise Lost), they tend to use an elevated style of
sense sound and language and supernatural beings take part in the action.
structure. ⋅ A ballad is a song, originally transmitted orally, which tells a story. It
Essay – is a prose is an important form of folk poetry that was adapted for literary uses
composition in moderate from the sixteenth century onwards. The ballad stanza is usually a
length that presents a four-line stanza, alternating tetrameter, and trimeter.
tentative exploration or
evaluation of a subject ELEMENTS OF FICTION
and explain viewpoint 1. CHARACTER – are the representation of a human being; persons
that can be said on a involved in a conflict.
particular subject or Fictional characters are classified into:
topic. ⋅ Protagonist – the principal character in the story. He is usually an
Drama – is a admirable character with whom we usually sympathize or identify.
composition in prose ⋅ Antihero – an inept or otherwise ridiculous character
form that presents story
told entirely in dialogue ⋅ Antagonist – the villain or a character in conflict with the hero and is
and action and written usually less admirable than the hero; he creates the conflict.
with an intention of its ⋅ Fringe – one who is destroyed by his inner conflict.
eventual performance ⋅ Typical or minor characters
before an audience. Ways on how characters are portrayed:
⋅ Dynamic or round character – a fully developed character that
KINDS OF PROSE recognizes changes with or adjusts to the circumstances. He carries
Prose Drama – meant to be acted on stage with him the reality of human growth and decline.
Essay – it is expository in nature, the author shares some of his È the protagonists and antagonists are individuals who express a
thoughts, feelings experiences, or observations on aspects of life range of emotions and change throughout the narrative, usually
that have interested him. toward greater maturity
Prose Fiction – something invented or imagined or feigned to be true.
a. Novel – a long fictitious narrative with a complicated plot. ⋅ Flat character – a character who does not grow and remains the
b. Short story – a fictitious narrative compressed into one unit of same or a stereotype character of conventional traits. Because he
time, place, and action exhibits only one side or aspect of him, he has no depth and no
changes. Sila yung mga supporting character like mga protagonist
È Most supporting characters are portrayed in this way: a strict
teacher, a helpful policeman. And an evil stepmother.

Downloaded by Dandrie Cart ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|49008929

⋅ Foil character – a character who points out the qualities or ⋅ Surprise Ending – this is an ending that catches the reader off guard
characteristics of another character. with unexpected events.
È For example, a foolish character sets a wise character’s wisdom in ⋅ In Medias Res – the technique of beginning a story in the middle of
a stronger light. the action, with background information given later in flashbacks.
2. SETTING – the locale (place) or period (time) in which the action of 5. POINT OF VIEW – the writer’s feeling and attitude toward his subject;
a short story, play, novel, or motion picture takes place (also determines who tells the story; it identifies the narrator of the
known as the background of the story. story (the form of narration also affects the story itself.)
3. CONFLICT – the struggle or complication involving the characters,
the opposition of persons, or forces upon which the action Classification (POINT OF VIEW)
depends in drama or fiction. ⋅ First person is used when the main character is telling the story. This
is the kind that uses the "I" narrator. As a reader, you can only
TYPES OF CONFLICT experience the story through this person's eyes. So you won't know
Internal Conflicts Interpersonal External Conflict anything about the people or events that this character hasn't
Conflict personally experienced.
- occurs when the - pits the protagonist - happens when the ⋅ Second person point of view is generally only used in instructional
protagonist struggles against someone else protagonist is in the writing. It is told from the perspective of "you".
within himself battle of an
MAN vs. MAN uncontrolled situation, ⋅ Third person POV is used when your narrator is not a character in the
MAN vs. HIMSELF conflict with the story. The Third-person uses the "he/she/it" narrator and it is the
Kahit sino kaaway mo. values of his or her most commonly used POV in writing.
Hindi nya alam kung babae society and conflict There are 3 main types of Third Person POV:
sya or lalaki sya with natural calamities ⋅ Third Person Limited: Limited means that the POV is limited to only
one character. This means that the narrator only knows what that
MAN vs. FATE character knows. With third person limited you can choose to view
MAN vs. SOCIETY the action from right inside the character's head, or from further
MAN vs. NATURE away, where the narrator has more access to information outside the
Covid19 vs. man protagonist's viewpoint.
Nature vs, man – kung may
baha ⋅ Third Person Multiple: This type is still in the "he/she/it" category,
but now the narrator can follow multiple characters in the story. The
4. PLOT – a usually related sequence of events that involves the challenge is making sure that the reader knows when you are
character in conflict. (Beginning, Middle, Ending) switching from one character to another. Make the switch obvious
The sequence of events is called narrative order with chapter or section breaks.
- Chronological order is the most common type of narrative order ⋅ Third Person Omniscient: This point of view still uses the "he/she/it"
- Flashback occurs when the author narrates an event that took place narration but now the narrator knows EVERYTHING. The narrator isn't
before the current time of the story limited by what one character knows, sort of like the narrator is God.
- Time lapse occurs when the story skips a period of time that seems The narrator can know things that others don't, can make comments
unusual compared to the rest of the plot. about what's happening, and can see inside the minds of other
PARTS OF THE PLOT characters.
6. MOOD – is the general feeling or atmosphere that a piece of writing
creates within the reader.
7. TONE – in a written composition, is an attitude of a writer toward a
subject or an audience is generally conveyed through the choice
of words or the viewpoint of a writer on a particular subject.
Every written piece comprises a central theme or subject matter.
8. SYMBOLISM – can take many forms including A figure of speech
where an object, person, or situation has another meaning other
than its literal meaning is the actions of a character, word, action,
or event that have a deeper meaning in the context of the whole
story.
⋅ Exposition (beginning) introduces the time, place, setting, and the 9. SENSORY IMAGES (IMAGERY) is a strategy readers use to think more
main characters
deeply about a text. It is when a reader combines their schema
⋅ Complication (rising action) unfolds the problems and struggles that and the information in the text to create an image in their mind.
would be encountered by the main characters leading to the crisis. This image can represent all of the five senses (visual, smell,
⋅ Climax (result of the crisis) part where the problem of the conflict is taste, sound, touch, or feeling).
the highest peak of interest and greatest emotion. 10. THEME – is the central topic a text treats. It can be divided into
⋅ Denouement is the untying of knots or the part that shows a conflict two categories: a work's thematic concept is what readers "think
or a problem is solved. the work is about" and its thematic statement is "what the work
⋅ Resolution (end) contains the last statement of the story says about the subject".
PLOT DEVICES Elements of Poetry
⋅ Flashback – something out of the chronological order: to reveal 1. SENSE is revealed through the meaning of words, images and
information to understand the character’s nature. symbols.
⋅ Foreshadowing – a device to give a sign of something to come its a. diction – denotative and connotative meanings/symbols.
purpose is to create suspense, to keep the readers guessing what will b. images and sense impression – sight, sound smell, taste, touch,
happen when. motion, and emotion.
c. figures of speech – simile, metaphor, personification, apostrophe,
⋅ Suspense – this is the feeling of excitement or tension in the reader’s metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole irony etc.
experiences as the action of the plot unfolds.

Downloaded by Dandrie Cart ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|49008929

2. SOUND is the result of a combination of elements. whose sound is suggestive of its meaning whether by imitation or
a. tone color – alliteration, assonance, consonance, rhyme, through cultural inference.
repetition anaphora e.g I heard a Fly buzz – when I died –
b. rhythm – orders recurrent alteration of strong and weak The Stillness in the Room
elements in the flow of the sound and silence: duple, triple, – “I heard a Fly buzz – when I died –” by Emily Dickinson
running or common rhyme. n. ALLITERATION - is the repetition of initial identical consonant sounds
c. meter – stress, duration, or number of syllables per line, fixed or any vowel sounds in successive or closely associated syllables
metrical pattern, or a verse form: quantitative, syllabic especially stressed syllables.
accentual and accentual syllabic. e.g They click upon themselves
d. rhyme scheme – formal arrangement of rhymes in stanza or the As the breeze rises, and turn many-colored
whole poem. As the stir cracks and crazes their enamel.
3. STRUCTURE – refers to arrangement of words and lines to fit – “Birches” by Robert Frost
together and organization of the parts of the whole.
a. word order – natural and unnatural arrangement of words LESSON 2: Literary Approaches
b. ellipsis – omitting some words for economy and effect Lenses used to analyze Literary Pieces
c. punctuation – abundance or lack of punctuation marks. á Literary Criticism – a systematic study and evaluation of literary works
d. shape – contextual and visual designs, jumps, omission of á Biographical Criticism – begins with simple but central insight that
spaces, capitalization, lower case. Literature is written by actual people and that understanding an
author’s life can help readers more thoroughly comprehend the work.
POETRY DEVICES á Cultural Criticism – an approach to literature that focuses on the
Figures of Speech historical as well as social political and economic contexts of a work
a. SIMILE – consists of comparing two things using the words like or as. á Deconstructionism – critical dismantling of tradition and traditional
e.g. “The very mystery of him excited her curiosity like a door that modes of thought
had neither lock nor key.” — Gone with the Wind, by á Feminist Criticism – an approach to literature that that seeks to
Margaret Mitchell correct and supplement what may be regarded as a predominantly
b. METAPHOR – uses direct comparison of two unlike things and ideas. made dominated critical perspective with a feminist consciousness.
e.g. Two roads diverged in a wood, and I—I took the one less á Formalist Criticism – an approach to literature that focuses on the
traveled by, And that has made all the difference. — “The formal elements of a work such as its language, structure and tone
Road Not Taken,” Robert Frost á Gay and Lesbian – an approach to literature that focuses on how
c. PERSONIFICATION – gives human traits to inanimate objects or ideas. homosexuals are represented in literature
e.g. “When well-appareled April on the heel Of limping winter á Gender Criticism – an approach to literature that explore how ideas
treads.” — “Romeo and Juliet,” W. Shakespeare about men and women - what is masculine and feminine- can be
d. METONYMY – substitutes a word that closely relates to a person or regarded as socially constructed by particular cultures.
a thing. á Historical Criticism – an approach to literature that uses history as
e.g. “Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.” — “Julius means of understanding literary work more clearly
Caesar,” W. Shakespeare á Marxist Criticism – an approach to literature that focuses on the
e. SYNECDOCHE – uses a part to represent a whole. ideological content of work of Karl Marx
e.g “O no! It is an ever-fixed mark. That looks on tempests and is á Mythological Criticism – an approach to literature that seeks to identify
never shaken.” — “Sonnet 116,” W. Shakespeare what in work creates deep universal response in readers, by paying
f. HYPERBOLE – makes use of exaggeration. close attention to the hopes, fears and expectations of the entire
e.g “I had to wait in the station in ten days – an eternity — “The cultures
Heart of Darkness”, Joseph Conrad á New Criticism – an approach to literature that focuses in explication-
g. IRONY – says the opposite of what is meant. extremely close textual analysis
e.g “Go ask his name: if he be married. My grave is like to be my á Psychological Criticism – an approach to literature that draws upon
wedding bed.” — “Romeo and Juliet,” W. Shakespeare psychoanalytic theories
h. ALLUSION – refers to any literary, biblical, historical, mythological, á Sociological Criticism – an approach to literature that examines social
scientific event, character or place groups, relationship and values as they are manifested in literature
e.g “The two knitting women increase his anxiety by gazing at him á Reader Response Criticism – an approach to literature that focuses on
and all the other sailors with knowing unconcern. Their eerie the reader rather than the work itself
looks suggest that they know what will happen (the men á Structuralism – an approach to literature that examines how literary
dying), yet don’t care” — Conrad’s “Heart of Darkness” texts arrive at their meanings rather than the meaning itself
i. ANTITHESIS – involves contrast of words or ideas á Queer Criticism – focused its inquiries into natural and unnatural
e.g “Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heav’n.” — “Paradise behavior with respect to homosexual behavior, queer theory expands
Lost ” John Milton its focus to encompass any kind of sexual activity or identify that
j. PARADOX – uses a phrase or statement that on surface seems falls into normative and deviant categories.
contradictor but makes some kind of emotional sense. á Moral-Philosophical Criticism – evaluates a work in terms of the ideas
e.g CECILY: To be natural is such a very difficult pose to keep up. and values it contains – in relation to particular ethical, philosophical
— “The Importance of Being Earnest” Oscar Wilde or religious system.
k. LITOTES – makes a deliberate understatement used to affirm by
negating its opposite. THE THREE THEORIES USED IN DIGESTING LITERARY PIECES
e.g I lived at West Egg, the — well, the less fashionable of the AUTHOR DEPENDENT THEORY
two, though this is a most superficial tag to express the Focuses on the perspective and the background of the author.
bizarre and not a little sinister contrast between them. — The ê
Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald TEXT DEPENDENT THEORY
l. OXYMORON – puts together in one statement two contradictory terms Focuses on the form, style and structure of the literary text itself.
e.g I find no peace, and all my war is done ê
I fear and hope, I burn and freeze like ice, READER’S DEPENDENT THEORY
I flee above the wind, yet can I not arise; Focuses on the perspective and own interpretation towards the literary
— Petrarch’s 134th sonnet (By Sir Thomas Wyatt) text of the reader himself.
m. ONOMATOPOEIA – the formation or use of words which imitate
sounds, but the term is generally expanded to refer to any word

Downloaded by Dandrie Cart ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|49008929

CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION TO MESOPOTAMIAN 10th Century BCE). It follows the story of Gilgamesh, the mythological
LITERATURE hero-king of Uruk, and his half-wild friend, Enkidu, as they undertake a
series of dangerous quests and adventures, and then Gilgamesh’s search
LESSON 1: ENUMAH ELISH for the secret of immortality after the death of his friend. It also
The Enuma Elish is the name given the collected myths passed down includes the story of a great flood very similar to the story of Noah in
through the oral tradition that describe the creation myth of the ancient “The Bible” and elsewhere.
Babylonian civilization. “The Epic of Gilgamesh” was one of the most beloved stories of
The overriding intent of the Enuma Elish was to serve a similar Mesopotamia. According to the tale, Gilgamesh is a handsome, athletic
purpose for Babylon within the context of the larger expanse of young king of Uruk city. His mother was the goddess Ninsun and his
Mesopotamian religious beliefs. father the priest-king Lugalbanda, making Gilgamesh semi-divine.
The Enuma Elish is essentially one of the earliest examples of political Gilgamesh is rambunctious and energetic, but also cruel and arrogant. He
propaganda. The primary purpose of its writing was to exalt Marduk as challenges all other young men to physical contests and combat. He also
not just a god, but the creation myth of the state of Babylon. Thus, proclaims his right to have sexual intercourse with all new brides.
Marduk becomes situated in a position of primacy over all other existing Gilgamesh’s behavior upsets Uruk’s citizens and they cry out to the
deities in the myths of other societies which comprised Mesopotamia in great god of heaven Anu for help with their young king.
the second millennium BCE. THE SUMMARY OF EPIC OF GILGAMESH
THE SUMMARY OF ENUMAH ELISH Gilgamesh is the Priest-King of the city of Uruk. He is a tyrannical
Enuma Elish begins with the universe unformed and containing only king who works his people to death and takes what he wants from
water. Only two beings exist in this unformed creation: Apsu, the fresh them. He kills the young men at will and uses the women as he pleases.
waters, and his wife, Tiamat, who is the salt water and the chaotic The people of Uruk cry out to the gods for help so that they can have
oceans. Tiamat is depicted as a monstrous dragon. From their union, silt peace.
forms, as it does when a freshwater river runs into the salty sea; from The gods hear them and instruct Anu, the goddess of creation, to
that, the gods arise, and the universe begins to take form. The gods make a twin for Gilgamesh, someone who is strong enough to stand up
begin to have children of their own, and soon there are many of them to him and who will ultimately save him. Anu makes Enkidu, a hairy wild
ruling the cosmos. man who lives in the wilderness with the animals.
This new order of things is too much for Apsu, who is bothered by One day a trapper sees Enkidu by a water hole and is frightened. He
the noise and commotion caused by the gods. He decides to destroy tells his father of the wild man he saw. His father tells the trapper to
them, despite the fact that they are his progeny. Tiamat is horrified by go to see Gilgamesh. He tells his son to ask the king for a temple
her husband's plan to attack her children and opposes Apsu, but cannot prostitute to bring back with him to seduce Enkidu. The trapper returns
defeat him. with Shamhat, a temple prostitute from the temple of Ishtar, the
Apsu is eventually conquered by the god Ea, his own great-grandson, goddess of love and war. They wait for Enkidu to reappear by the
who uses a spell to subdue Apsu and keep him imprisoned in a deathlike watering hole.
state of sleep. All seems well, and Ea and his wife have a son, the god Enkidu returns and Shamhat reveals herself to him. They copulate for
Marduk, who as a child is the favorite of the other gods. They give him six days and seven nights. When Enkidu is satisfied, he finds that the
the winds as a toy to play with, but the winds stir up trouble on the animals no longer accept him. Shamhat tells him to come back with her
salty seas, enraging Tiamat. Tiamat, her new husband, the god Kingu, to Uruk. Upon hearing of Gilgamesh, Enkidu decides he wishes to meet
and a group of gods to which she has given birth swear revenge for this him. The two set out for Uruk, making a stop at a shepherd's camp.
and for Ea's treatment of Apsu - although, breaks in the text leave her There Enkidu learns that Gilgamesh will sleep with a newly married bride
reasons for this change of allegiance somewhat vague. on her wedding night, before her husband sleeps with her. He is
The gods are frightened at the prospect of facing this army, with outraged and decides he must stop Gilgamesh. Meanwhile, Gilgamesh has
Kingu at its head. They don't know how they could possibly defeat it. several dreams foretelling the arrival of Enkidu.
Marduk speaks up, offering to fight for the gods and defeat Tiamat and The two meet in the streets of Uruk and a great fight breaks out
Kingu on one condition: that he be made absolute king of the gods, between them. Gilgamesh is triumphant but his encounter with Enkidu
having even the power of life and death over his fellow divinities. changes him. They become companions. Enkidu tells Gilgamesh of
The rest of the gods decide to test Marduk's power by setting up a Humbaba, a terrible monster who guards the Cedar Forest. Gilgamesh
new constellation in the heavens. They challenge Marduk first to destroy decides the two of them should journey there and defeat the monster.
it, and then to restore it just as it was. Marduk passes the test, and They make preparations and head to the Cedar Forest. They
the gods agree to his conditions. Marduk is armed with a mace, a bow encounter Humbaba and with the help of Shamash, the sun god, defeat
and arrows, and a net, and sent off to do battle. him. They return to Uruk carrying his head. After a celebration,
Marduk faces the dragon Tiamat in single combat; he catches her in Gilgamesh bathes himself and catches the eye of Ishtar. She tells him to
his net and dispatches her with an arrow. Marduk then cuts up Tiamat's become her lover, promising great riches and rewards in return.
body and uses it to construct the dome of the sky, as well as various Gilgamesh rejects Ishtar, telling her he is aware of her reputation as a
natural phenomena. He buries her head under a mountain and pierces scornful lover.
her eyes, which become the sources for the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Ishtar is outraged and convinces her father, Anu, to release the Bull
In this way, Marduk demonstrates his absolute mastery over the natural of Heaven to punish Gilgamesh. The Bull of Heaven descends on Uruk,
world. killing hundreds of men. Enkidu seizes the animal and Gilgamesh kills it
Marduk pardons the gods who fought with Tiamat (except for Kingu) with a sword. Ishtar appears and threatens the heroes. Enkidu tears off
but demands that as penance they construct for him a royal city, one of the Bull's haunches and throws it at Ishtar. Later that night,
Babylon, and a temple in it from which to rule, Esagilla. Marduk also Enkidu has a dream that the gods are meeting in council.
convenes a council of the gods, at which Kingu is tried and executed. In The dream proves true. The gods decide that one of the heroes must
order to free the gods from any further toil or manual labor, Marduk die for their behavior. They choose Enkidu. Enkidu falls ill and suffers for
commands that the gods use Kingu's corpse to construct the first twelve days before finally dying. Gilgamesh is shattered. He mourns for
humans, who are to serve the gods by keeping the land worked and by days and tears his hair and clothes. He adorns filthy animal skins and
giving the gods appropriate worship and sacrifices. journeys into the forest and mountains. He has witnessed death and is
now terrified of his own mortality. He seeks to escape it.
LESSON 2: EPIC OF GILGAMESH Gilgamesh decides to seek out Utnapishtim, the one being granted
“The Epic of Gilgamesh” is an epic poem from ancient Mesopotamia immortality by the gods. He travels to Mount Mashu, a twin-peaked
and among the earliest known literary writings in the world. It originated mountain that marks an entrance to a world in which mortals cannot
as a series of Sumerian legends and poems in cuneiform script dating venture. He convinces the guards of the mountain, two Scorpion-man
back to the early 3rd or late 2nd millennium BCE, which were later beings, to allow him to enter a long passage under the mountain. He
gathered into a longer Akkadian poem (the most complete version endures this terrible darkness for a full day.
existing today, preserved on 12 clay tablets, dates from the 12th to

Downloaded by Dandrie Cart ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|49008929

When he emerges on the other side, he is in a wondrous paradise. He Gen16: Sarai told Abram to have children with Hagar. Hagar conceived,
sees a tavern by the sea and approaches it, frightening its owner, Siduri, then ran away, but an angel sent her back. Hagar's son was
with his appearance. Siduri allows him to enter the tavern after he Ishmael.
explains his story and his intention to find Utnapishtim. Siduri tells Gen17: God made a covenant with Abram and renamed him Abraham.
Gilgamesh of Urshanabi, the boatman, who can ferry Gilgamesh across He renamed Sarai Sarah and promised them a son. The men were
the Waters of Death to where Utnapishtim resides. circumcised.
Gilgamesh finds Urshanabi and the two set out to find Utnapishtim. Gen18: Three visitors came and said that Sarah would have a son next
They reach a shore and Gilgamesh meets an old man. Gilgamesh explains year. Sodom was very evil; Abraham pleaded with the LORD for
that he wishes to attain immortality. The old man is Utnapishtim, who the city.
tells Gilgamesh that immortality is for the gods alone. Mortals must learn Gen19: Angels took Lot out of Sodom. The city was destroyed by fire
to accept death. He tells Gilgamesh the story of how he was granted and Lot's wife was turned to salt. His daughters had children for
immortality by the gods. He asks Gilgamesh what he has done to him.
deserve this same gift. Gen20: In Gerar Abraham said, "Sarah is my sister." King Abimelech took
Gilgamesh finally leaves with Urshanabi to return to Uruk. Utnapishtim her but God warned him in a dream. He restored Sarah to
tells Gilgamesh of a magical plant at the bottom of the sea that can Abraham.
restore one's youth. Gilgamesh descends into the waters and retrieves Gen21: As promised, Sarah had a son: Isaac. She had Hagar and Ishmael
the plant. sent away but God preserved them. Abraham and Abimelech made
On his way back to Uruk, Gilgamesh stops to bathe in a spring, a treaty.
leaving the plant by the water. A serpent appears and steals the plant, Gen22: God told Abraham to sacrifice Isaac. As Abraham obeyed, an
leaving Gilgamesh weeping by the water's edge. He returns to Uruk with angel stopped him. The LORD provided a ram instead and blessed
Urshanabi. Upon seeing the great city, Gilgamesh understands that it is Abraham.
his legacy, and that if he rules well, it will be his greatest legacy. Gen23: Sarah died in Kiriath-arba. Abraham asked the Hittites for a
Gilgamesh comes to understand that the most important thing in life is burial site. He bought a cave from Ephron and buried Sarah there.
to have lived and loved well. Gen24: Abraham's servant went to Nahor to find a wife for Isaac. He
met Rebekah by the well. She went back with him and married
Isaac.
CHAPTER 3: BIBLE: OLD TESTAMENT Gen25: Abraham died and was buried with Sarah. Isaac and Rebekah had
twins: Esau and Jacob. Esau sold his birthright to Jacob for a
LESSON 1: THE BOOK OF GENESIS meal.
THE SUMMARY OF THE BOOK OF GENESIS Gen26: In Gerar Isaac lied about Rebekah. He grew so rich that
Gen1: God created the heavens, the earth and everything that lives. He Abimelech sent him away. He dug wells, and at Beersheba the
made humankind in his image, and gave them charge over the LORD blessed him.
earth. Gen27: Rebekah and Jacob tricked Isaac into giving Jacob his blessing.
Gen2: God formed a man and gave him the garden in Eden, except the Esau vowed revenge so Rebekah told Jacob to go to her brother
tree of good and evil. Adam was alone so God made a woman as Laban.
his partner. Gen28: Isaac sent Jacob to marry one of Laban's daughters. On the way
Gen3: The serpent deceived the woman. She and Adam ate from the Jacob dreamed of a ladder reaching to heaven and the LORD
tree. The ground was cursed, and God sent Adam and Eve out of blessed him.
the garden. Gen29: Jacob worked for Laban seven years to marry Rachel, but Laban
Gen4: Eve's sons made offerings to the LORD. Only Abel's was gave him Leah and made him work seven more for Rachel. Leah
acceptable, so Cain killed him. Abel's blood cried out and God had sons.
sent Cain away. Gen30: Rachel's maid had sons for Jacob, then Leah's maid, then Leah.
Gen5: Adam's line was: Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel, Jared, Enoch, Finally Rachel had a son. Laban allowed Jacob flocks as wages to
Methuselah, Lamech and Noah. Noah's sons were Shem, Ham and stay.
Japheth. Gen31: The Lord told Jacob to return home. Jacob left in secret and
Gen6: Humankind corrupted the earth with evil. God decided to destroy Rachel took Laban's idols. Laban chased Jacob but they made a
them. He told Noah to build an ark to be saved from the flood. treaty.
Gen7: Noah and his family went into the ark with two of each creature. Gen32: Jacob heard that Esau was coming to meet him. He was afraid
It rained for forty days and forty nights and the earth was and sent gifts. That night he wrestled with a man who renamed
covered. him Israel.
Gen8: The flood abated. Noah sent out a raven and two doves. When Gen33: Esau and his men arrived. Jacob bowed down but Esau ran to
the earth was dry God called them all out of the ark. Noah built embrace him. Jacob settled near Shechem and built an altar.
an altar. Gen34: Shechem raped Jacob's daughter and asked to marry her.
Gen9: God blessed Noah and set the rainbow as a sign that he would Jacob's sons told him to circumcise his men, then Simeon and
never flood the earth again. Noah got drunk and cursed Ham's Levi killed them.
son Canaan.Gen10: Japheth's line lived in the coastlands; Ham's Gen35: Jacob went to Bethel and God renamed him Israel. They
included Nimrod and the Canaanites; Shem's lived in the East. journeyed on. Rachel died having Israel's twelfth son. Isaac died in
These formed the nations. Hebron.
Gen11: They began building a great tower for themselves, but the Lord Gen36: Esau's sons were Eliphaz, Reuel, Jeush, Jalam and Korah. Esau
confused their language. Shem's line included Abram who married and his family moved away to Seir. They became the Edomites.
Sarai. Gen37: Joseph was Israel's favourite son. He had dreams and his
Gen12: God told Abram, "Go, I will make you a great nation. You will be brothers were jealous so they sold him. He was bought by
a blessing." In Egypt Abram lied about Sarai and Pharaoh was Potiphar in Egypt.
cursed. Gen38: Judah's sons Er and Onan died, leaving Tamar a widow. Judah
Gen13: Abram journeyed with his nephew Lot. Their servants argued, so sent her away but she put on a veil and he slept with her. She
Lot went to Sodom, Abram to Canaan. The LORD promised Abram had twins.
the land. Gen39: Potiphar put Joseph in charge of his house. His wife tried to
Gen14: The kings went to war and took Lot captive. Abram rescued seduce Joseph, then lied about it, so Potiphar put Joseph in
Lot. Melchizedek blessed Abram and Abram gave him a tenth of prison.
everything. Gen40: Pharaoh put his cupbearer and baker in prison. Joseph
Gen15: The Lord promised Abram an heir and many descendants. Abram interpreted their dreams. The cupbearer was restored but the
believed. He was told that they would be enslaved but would then baker was hanged.
return.

Downloaded by Dandrie Cart ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|49008929

Gen41: Pharaoh had a dream and called for Joseph to interpret it. The God. David was a master at finding different ways to praise God in life
dream predicted a famine. Pharaoh put Joseph in charge of all experiences and the book of Psalms is a wonder book for those who
Egypt. want to know how to please God. He was filled with the Holy Spirit (1
Gen42: Joseph's brothers went to Egypt to buy grain but didn't Samuel 16:13). There is no doubt the David wrote most of the Psalms,
recognize him. He kept Simeon in prison and sent the rest to and the ones that he did not write are in his style as well.
fetch Benjamin. Among the Psalms are two collections of Levitical Psalms, one is
Gen43: When the grain ran out, Joseph's brothers went back to Egypt ascribed to the "sons of Korah" (Psalms 42-49), the other is ascribed
with Benjamin. Joseph invited them to his house and gave them a to Asaph (Psalms 73-83 and Psalms 50). These exalt the tribes of
feast. Joseph. There are Psalms mentioning Moses, Haman, Ethan, and
Gen44: Joseph hid his cup in Benjamin's sack, then sent a steward after Solomon, some are anonymous (Psalm 33, 84-89). Some of the Psalms
his brothers. Judah offered himself as a slave instead of Benjamin. reveal a strong liturgical emphasis which might've been used in worship
Gen45: Joseph told his brothers who he was. They were afraid, but he services, or on special days and do not mention the author (Psalms 91-
told them, "God sent me here." His brothers went to fetch their 100).
father. It is impossible to determine exactly how the Psalms were compiled
Gen46: So Israel set out with all his household. God told him not to be and collected, and dating them is also difficult for most of the Psalms.
afraid. Israel and all his family came to Egypt and Joseph met him. Some of the Psalms are commemorating victories, while others are
Gen47: Pharaoh allowed Joseph's family to settle in Goshen. The famine historical, remembering the Lord and God's people in past events. Other
continued and the Egyptians sold all they had to Pharaoh for Psalms are prophetic and look to the future and the coming of the
food. Messiah, as well as the heavenly kingdom. There are Psalms of affliction,
Gen48: Jacob became ill, so Joseph took his sons to see him. Jacob lamentation and remorse over sin, as well as songs of Thanksgiving and
blessed Joseph's sons as his own, putting Ephraim ahead of trusting the Lord.
Manasseh. Some of the songs were chosen to be good for reciting on certain
Gen49: Jacob gathered his sons and blessed each of them. He charged Jewish holy days, like the Sabbath, or Passover, the feast of
them to bury him with Abraham in the cave in Canaan, and then Tabernacles, etc. There are titles on about 100 of the Psalms, the titles
he died. are so old that they cannot be understood even in the second century
Gen50: Pharaoh allowed Joseph to go and bury Jacob. Before Joseph BC. Some of the titles point to the source of the Psalm, while others
died, he said that God would lead his people back to the Promised point to a certain purpose, or a certain melody, or something related to
Land. music.

LESSON 2: THE BOOK OF PSALMS LESSON 3: THE BOOK OF JOB

THE SUMMARY OF THE BOOK OF PSALMS THE SUMMARY OF THE BOOK OF JOB
The book of Psalms is the longest book in the Bible. The 119th Psalm The book of Job is Narrative History. Its author is unknown yet it is
is a longest chapter in the whole Bible. The 117th Psalm is the shortest possible that Job himself wrote it. It is possible that Job is the oldest of
chapter in the Bible and located in the middle. When the Old Testament any book of the Bible written approximately 2100-1800 B.C. Key
is quoted in the New Testament by someone, over one third of all the personalities of this book include Job, Eliphaz the Temanite, Bildad the
quotes are from the Psalms. Shuhite, Zophar the Naamathite, and Elihu the Buzite.
In Job, we see a man who God allows to be directly attacked by
Book 1 – Psalms 1–41
Satan. He is an example of faithfulness as he loses everything important
Book 2 – Psalms 42–72
to him yet remains faithful to God. Its purpose is to illustrate God’s
Book 3 – Psalms 73–89 sovereignty and faithfulness during a time of great suffering.
Book 4 – Psalms 90–106
In chapters 1-3, God tests Job’s faithfulness through allowing Satan
Book 5 – Psalms 107–150
to attack him. God told Satan, “Behold, all that he has is in your power,
The title of the Book of Psalms in the Hebrew is sepher tehillim, only do not put forth your hand on him” (1:12). Through Job’s trials, all
meaning "book of praises", and indeed it is a fitting title. Every chapter is lost including his health, his wife even tells him to curse God and
is devoted to praise and thanksgiving from the author to Yahweh. This commit suicide, but he remains strong and faithful, “Through all this Job
book clearly provides hope and confidence in the Lord as the maker of did not sin nor did he blame God.” (1:22).
all things, the ultimate ruler of everything including the universe. He From chapters 4-37, Job’s friends give him plenty of bad advice, in
sees everything, knows everything, he has no limits, his presence is rounds of discussion. They mistakenly blame his sufferings on his
everywhere even in darkness there is no hiding and he is to be praised. personal sins rather than God testing and growing Job. One of them was
The Psalms are full of religious poetry and this was not uncommon in half-correct in that God wanted to humble him, but this was only a part
the ancient Near Eastern nation and peoples, and it was not surprising of God’s test.
for the Hebrews to have produced such a powerful work. David was the In chapters 38-42, God speaks to Job and restores him. God knows
recognized writer of the Psalms and they are many times referred to as that Job has received incorrect guidance from his friends, “Who is this
the Psalms of David, although some of the chapters are not attributed that darkens counsel by words without knowledge?” God fittingly
to him in the notes. declares that humans do not know everything. Then He humbles Job by
The Psalms of David included Psalms 2-41 (except Psalms 33), Psalms asking a series of questions that could never be answered by anyone
51-72, Psalms 108-110, and Psalms 138-145. David was no doubt a other than Almighty God; for example, “Have you understood the
very skillful musician, the Bible mentions that he played the lyre for King expanse of the earth? Tell Me, if you know all this”. God then brings
Saul (1 Samuel 16:23), and the prophet Amos mentions that David him to an understanding that believers don’t always know what God is
invented instruments of music for worship of the Lord (Amos 6:5). doing in their lives. In the end, Job answers God by saying, “I have
There is also mention in the book of Samuel about David lamenting over declared that which I did not understand”. God then blessed Job with
Saul and Jonathan in a poetic fashion revealing his natural ability. twice as much as he had before his trials began.
David went to many experiences in his life that he wrote about,
especially when he was hunted down by King Saul from place to place CHAPTER 3: HOMER, THE ILLIAD BOOKS
like a "Partridge" in the wilderness. David was a young shepherd, he
knew what it was like to tend his flock and to guard them from Through his epic poems, Homer has played a hugely influential role in
predators, this gave him a beautiful imagery for the Lord the great Western Literature. His classics of the Iliad and the Odyssey, stand at
Shepherd. David was also a musician, a man of war, a king, a father, a the forefront of the Western Canon of literature.
husband, a friend, and many more. He repented over his sin in Psalm Details about the life of Homer are scarce and different sources quote
51, acknowledging himself to be a sinner before God and God alone. different variations about his life. The historian Herodotus places Homer
God called David "a man after my own heart" and these experiences as living around 850BC. However, other sources suggest Homer was
allowed him to share with the reader, a man who knew the heart of born around the time of the Trojan War in the early 12 Century BC.

Downloaded by Dandrie Cart ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|49008929

The name Homer has been interpreted as meaning ’he who accompanies, of the army and, on the recommendation of Nestor, guards are posted
he who is forced to follow.’ or in some dialects ’blind’. This has led to at the wall and the troops disperse to their tents for dinner and sleep.
the opinion that Homer may have been blind. At a meeting of the council, old Nestor takes the floor and reminds
Homer is said to have been born on the Greek island of Chios or Agamemnon that the absence of Achilles is causing the present distress
perhaps Ionia. Homer was likely to have been a fairly aristocratic of the army. The king admits that he was unwise to have insulted the
member of court – perhaps working as a court minstrel or storyteller. great warrior. He decides to offer many valuable gifts, as well as the
return of Briseis, if Achilles will rejoin the army. Emissaries are therefore
ILIAD BOOK I sent to the tent of the sulking hero with this message.
In the tenth year of the Trojan War, Achilles, the greatest fighter for
Achilles welcomes Telamonian Aias (Ajax) and Odysseus with great
the Achaeans (the Greeks and their allies), is enraged. King Agamemnon,
honor, but he refuses to accept the terms offered by Agamemnon. He
who leads the Achaeans, has brought an illness upon the army by
refusing to give up a woman, Chryseis, whom he seized as a prize in a cannot be bought or sold, he says, and nothing, even if it were all the
wealth of Egypt, could erase Agamemnon's public insult. Therefore, he
recent battle. Chryseis is the daughter of a priest of the god Apollo.
will not join in the battle, and in the morning, he and his men will sail
When Agamemnon refuses to give her back in exchange for a ransom,
her father calls on the god, and Apollo sends a plague. for home. He is adamant in his decision.
Back in the Achaian camp, Agamemnon listens with great sorrow to the
When Achilles calls on Agamemnon to give up Chryseis in return for
report of what happened in Achilles' tent. Finally, Diomedes rises and
future compensation, Agamemnon seems to view the idea of future tells the assembled warriors that it was an error to try to appeal to
compensation as unlikely for a warrior who lives moment by moment
someone as conceited and headstrong as Achilles. He advises them to
and demands immediate restoration of his pride by claiming Briseis, the
make whatever preparations are possible to defend the ships against the
woman Achilles has taken as a prize. Only the intervention of Athena Trojans the next morning. All agree, and after making libations to the
stops Achilles from killing Agamemnon at that moment, and he vows
gods, they retire to their quarters.
Agamemnon will beg for his skills one day. Achilles refuses to fight and
appeals to his mother, the goddess Thetis, to avenge his pride. Thetis ILIAD BOOK XVI
secures the pledge of Zeus, king of the gods, that the Achaeans will
While the battle around the ships continues, Patroklos pleads with
lose the war until the insult to Achilles's honor has been repaired.
Achilles to be allowed to wear Achilles' armor and to lead the
Myrmidons, his troops, into battle. While Achilles is considering this
ILIAD BOOK IV
request, flames are seen rising from among the ships, indicating great
On Olympus, the gods argue over the war. Zeus suggests that the
success for the Trojans. Achilles consents, and Patroklos and the
peace hold and Helen go home with Menelaus, both because Troy is his Myrmidons arm themselves with great enthusiasm. After Achilles has
favorite city and to mock Hera's and Athena's passion for the death of
addressed them and offered a libation to Zeus, he warns Patroklos to do
Trojans. Hera protests she wouldn't object if Zeus destroyed all her
no more than rescue the ships, for if he attacks Troy, he may be killed.
favorite cities, so he shouldn't protest the destruction of Troy. Zeus
yields and sends Athena to provoke Troy to break the truce. The Trojans are panicked by the belief that Achilles has decided to
unleash his fury against them, and in a short time, the addition of
Disguised as a soldier, Athena urges Pandarus, a Trojan archer, to kill
Menelaus. His arrow hits Menelaus in the belt and draws blood, but Achilles' fresh and well equipped regiment of Myrmidons to the Achaian
army destroys the Trojan advantage. Hektor and his men flee toward
Athena doesn't actually want Menelaus dead and prevents a mortal
Troy.
wound. However, the truce is broken. Agamemnon uses praise and scorn
to rouse his troops, and the Achaean army surges in violent waves to Patroklos pursues Hektor and his men all the way to the walls of Troy,
the attack. As gods drive them on, warriors on both sides die in droves. doing many heroic deeds on the way. However, Apollo decides to enter
the fighting as an ally of Hektor, and while Patroklos, in an almost god-
ILIAD BOOK VIII like manner, slaughters nine Trojans in a single charge, Apollo slips up
In the morning, the Trojan forces come out of the city and the armies behind him and strikes him so fiercely on the back that Patroklos'
clash again. Zeus watches over the fighting from nearby Mount Ida and vizored helmet flies off. His spear is shattered and his armor falls to the
decides to give the day's victory to Troy. A furious battle ensues, and ground. Then, while Patroklos is standing in a daze, a Trojan soldier
soon the Achaians are driven from the field in complete disorder. Most pierces him midway between the shoulders with a javelin.
of the commanders flee also, and old Nestor is saved from Hektor's
spear only by the courage of Diomedes. Patroklos tries to hide, but Hektor sees him and rams a spear through
the lower part of his belly. Patroklos falls with a thud, and the entire
Hera, who has always been a fanatical hater of the Trojans, tries to Achaian army is stunned. His voice failing, Patroklos tells Hektor that it
convince Poseidon to join her in helping the Achaians. The sea god, was not he who conquered him. It was the gods, he says, the gods and
however refuses. "deadly Destiny."
Hektor is everywhere, fighting bravely and cheering on his men. Hera
and Athena prepare to intervene, but Zeus notices their approach. He ILIAD BOOK XVIII
When Achilles learns of the death of Patroklos, he bursts into tears,
repeats his earlier warning through his messenger, Iris, and the
tearing his hair and throwing himself on the ground. His sorrowful lament
goddesses return to Olympos. Meanwhile, the Achaian forces are driven
back behind the fortifications protecting their ships. is heard by his mother, Thetis, and she comes to comfort him. She
points out that if Achilles avenges Patroklos, he himself will be killed.
Hektor orders his army to camp on the plain for the night to prevent Despite his mother's warning, however, Achilles chooses to undertake
the Achaians from sailing off to safety in the darkness and to retain the this risk, so great is his love for Patroklos. Thetis therefore promises to
advantage for the morning's assault. Supplies are brought from Troy, procure new armor for her son from the god Hephaistos to replace the
and the Trojan fires burn in front of the Achaian wall. armor that was captured by Hektor.
Meanwhile, the Achaians, who are bearing away the body of Patroklos,
ILIAD BOOK IX
are given close pursuit by the Trojans; so Achilles (at the suggestion of
The routed Achaian army is completely demoralized. At an assembly of
Hera) appears at the Achaian trench and shouts his ferocious and
troops that night, even proud King Agamemnon bursts into tears. He furious war cry. The sound of this mighty war cry strikes terror into the
says that the war is lost, and he suggests sailing home. His dejected
hearts of the Trojans, and they retreat in panic.
soldiers receive this speech in silence, but Diomedes leaps to his feet,
reminding the king of his responsibilities and reminding the troops of Achilles' sorrow is intensified by the sight of his dead comrade's body,
their heroic heritage. They canallreturn home, he says, buthe, Diomedes, and all of the Achaians join Achilles in mourning. Achilles vows to kill
will remain alone, if necessary, to continue fighting, for it is fated that Hektor and to slaughter twelve Trojan warriors on the funeral pyre of
Troy will eventually fall. This brave declaration restores the confidence

Downloaded by Dandrie Cart ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|49008929

Patroklos. Meanwhile, Patroklos' dead body is washed clean and laid out weeping is heard by Andromache, and when she learns of her husband's
in state in Achilles' tent. death, she collapses.
At a Trojan council of war that night, Poulydamas suggests that the
ILIAD BOOK XXIV
Trojan army remain in the city and fight off any Achaian assault from
Nine days pass after the funeral, and on each of these days, Achilles
the protection of the battlements. The return of Achilles to the Achaian
force makes it too dangerous to fight in the open, he says. Hektor ties the body of Hektor to his chariot and drags it around the barrow of
Patroklos. The gods, however, continue to preserve the corpse so that it
refuses to heed this advice, however, and he insists that the Trojan
does not deteriorate or rot.
army stay in the field. His opinion prevails.
Zeus then holds a meeting of the gods where it is decided that Hektor's
On Olympos, Thetis calls upon Hephaistos. She tells the god about all
body will be redeemed and given a suitable burial. To make this possible,
that has taken place on the battlefield that day, and she asks him to
the gods order Thetis to explain to her son, Achilles, that it is the will
provide new armor for her son. Hephaistos assents and makes a of Zeus that he restore Hektor's body to Priam, Hektor's father.
marvelous and beautiful set of new armor for Achilles. The new shield
alone is a masterpiece, being built up of five layers and having on it a Escorted by the god Hermes, Priam and an old servant enter the
representation of the signs of the zodiac and of two cities engaged in Achaian camp that night, unseen. Priam appeals to Achilles as a
all the peaceful and warlike activities of mankind. When the armor is suppliant, reminding Achilles of the feelings that he has for his own
finished, Thetis takes it in her arms, and, thanking Hephaistos, she goes dead father. Achilles is so moved by these reawakened memories of
to find her son. home and parents that he agrees to accept Priam's offer of ransom for
Hektor's body. The two men, Achilles and Priam, each having his own
Readers see, then, that Achilles is given his final chance to decide his
sorrow, weep together. Then Achilles has dinner prepared and provides
fate, for Thetis tells him that he will die if he avenges Patroklos. Despite
this knowledge, Achilles chooses to continue his plan for revenge. Priam with a bed for the night. He even oversees the preparations of
Hektor's body and also grants the Trojans a 12-day truce so that they
Patroklos was his closest friend, a lesser reflection of his own glory, and,
have sufficient time to conduct Hektor's funeral rites.
in an emotional sense, part of himself; so in every way, the killing of
Patroklos was a direct blow to Achilles himself. His determination to All the people of Troy come out to mourn Hektor's body. Andromache,
avenge his friend is so intense because he realizes that he is responsible Hekuba, and Helen, all of whom praise Hektor and describe their own
for Patroklos' death, and he is angry with himself as well as with the reasons for regretting his death, lead the lamentations.
Trojans. He hopes that by punishing the Trojans and, in particular, by
During the period of the truce, the Trojans gather wood in the
venting his fury on Hektor, their leader and the human symbol of Trojan
mountains and burn Hektor's body on a large funeral pyre. His bones are
resistance, he will be able to assuage his sense of guilt and grief.
then placed in a golden chest, which is buried in a shallow grave. Over
In all things, Achilles has a greater capacity for feeling than other men this, a barrow is erected. Afterward, a great funeral banquet is served in
do. His wrath, his grief, and his exploits in the battle to come will now Priam's palace.
begin to take on a superhuman quality, symbolized in part by the divine
armor made for him by the god Hephaistos, as the climax of the
tragedy draws near.

ILIAD BOOK XXII

With the Trojans now secure in their city, Hektor — as their sole
representative — stands outside the city gates and prepares to meet
Achilles. His mother and father appeal to him to seek safety behind the
city walls, but their pleas are in vain. While waiting, Hektor considers the
various courses of action open to him and decides that the only real
possibility is to fight Achilles.
Yet, when Achilles arrives, Hektor is overcome by fear and he flees.
Achilles pursues him around the city walls three times, and, as they run,
Hektor tries unsuccessfully to draw Achilles within range of the Trojan
archers on the battlements.
Finally, Athena deludes Hektor into believing that he will have assistance
against Achilles. He turns and stands his ground. But before the two
heroes fight, Hektor attempts to make Achilles promise to treat his
body with respect if he is killed, but Achilles is so full of fury that he
refuses.
The two warriors engage in a decisive duel. Achilles casts his spear first
and misses the mark, but it is returned to him by Athena. Next, Hektor
throws his spear and hits the center of Achilles' shield, but the divine
armor cannot be penetrated. The two men circle each other, slowly
closing in. Hektor is armed with only a sword, while Achilles still has his
spear. After several feints, Achilles lunges and stabs Hektor in the
throat. As the Trojan dies, he begs that his body be returned to his
family for a proper funeral, but Achilles again refuses Hektor's request.
Hektor dies reminding Achilles that his own death is imminent.
All the Achaians run up to see the corpse of the almost-mythic, now-
dead Trojan leader. Many of them jest and stab Hektor's corpse. Achilles
strips off Hektor's armor and fastens his naked body to his chariot by
the heels. Then he gallops off, dragging the corpse behind him in
disgrace.
When Priam and Hekuba, Hektor's parents, witness the vicious treatment
of their dead son, they begin to wail and bemoan their fate, and all of
the citizens of Troy join in the piteous lamentations. The sound of this

Downloaded by Dandrie Cart ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|49008929

WHAT IS LITERATURE?
LITERATURE is the total of preserved writings belonging to a given
language or people. (Webster)
- consists of those writings, which interpret the meanings of nature and
life, in words of charm and power, touched with the personality of the
author, in artistic forms of permanent interest.

REASONS WHY PEOPLE WRITE:

FOR SELF EXPRESSION
⋅ “The mouth speaks what the heart is full of.”
TO SPREAD KNOWLEDGE AND INFORMATION
⋅ Some ideas are worth recording and remembering.
TO PASS ON IDEAS AND VALUES
⋅ In this way, right attitudes are formed and good character is
developed. …
TO IMPART TRUTH, ACCURACY AND EVALUATION
⋅ This would allow others to analyze, evaluate, form valid judgments,
and make wise decisions.

LITERARY STANDARDS
1. Artistry
2. Suggestiveness
3. Intellectual Value
4. Spiritual Value
5. Permanence
6. Universality
7. Style

DIVISIONS OF LITERATURE
A. PROSE is discourse, which uses sentences usually, forming
paragraphs to express ideas, feelings and actions
1. FICTION – short story, novel, fables, parables, anecdotes, legends
2. NON-FICTION – essay, oration, biography, autobiography, memoirs,
letters, diaries, journals and news
B. POETRY may be described as rhythmic imaginative language
expressing the invention thought, imagination, taste, passion and
insight of the human soul.

PURPOSE OF LITERATURE
To express man’s feelings about his surroundings through the means
and materials available to him, depending on the style, capability, and
concept of beauty.

WHY WE STUDY LITERATURE?

Literature is the written record of man’s best thoughts and feelings.
1. Literature is a transmitter of values such as honesty, friendship, love
of country, respect for elders, self-discipline, justice, and honor.
2. As preserver of ideals, customs, and traditions. It is our link to the
past. Understanding of the past will help us strengthen our present
and future from lessons of the past.
3. As an agent of change. Literature contributes to significant changes
in society by inculcating the promotion of ideals and ideas. It is a
potent force that influences people’s thoughts into action.
4. Literature as a mirror of culture. It provides vicarious experiences that
will enrich our knowledge and perceptions of life and humanity.
5. As a source of pleasure. Literature entertains and gives pleasure.
6. Literature is experience. A student can identify his own experience
while reading about experiences of others, make comparison of his
experience with those presented vicarious situations presented in
literature.
7. It promotes individual as well as social insights. Complexities of social
life as depicted in literature are important background material studies
of existing social problems.
8. Literature is an expression of man’s emotions and ideas. These are
clothed in the highest level of language, and therefore, they give the
greatest insight into the character of people.
9. Literature educates, amuses, clams seditious minds, diverts
discontent, propagates certain beliefs and discredits others.

Downloaded by Dandrie Cart ([email protected])