Digital Design and Computer Organization

Module1 : Introduction to Digital Design

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 1

 Topics
• Binary Logic,
• Basic Theorems And Properties Of Boolean Algebra,
• Boolean Functions,
• Digital Logic Gates, Introduction,
• The Map Method,
• Four-Variable Map,
• Don’t-Care Conditions,
• NAND and NOR Implementation,
• Other Hardware Description Language – Verilog Model of a simple circuit.
Text book 1: 1.9,2.4, 2.5, 2.8, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.5, 3.6, 3.9

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 2

 Binary Logic
Definition of Binary Logic
• Binary logic consists of binary variables and a set of logical operations.
• The variables are designated by letters of the alphabet, such as A, B, C, x, y, z, etc., with each variable having
two and only two distinct possible values: 1 and 0.
• There are three basic logical operations: AND, OR, and NOT. Each operation produces a binary result,
denoted by z.

AND Operation
• This operation is represented by a dot or by the absence of an operator.
• For example, x⋅y=z or xy=z is read “x AND y is equal to z.”
• The logical operation AND is interpreted to mean that z=1 if and only if x=1 and y=1; otherwise z=0.
(Remember that x, y, and z are binary variables and can be equal either to 1 or 0, and nothing else.)
• The result of the operation x⋅y is z.

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 3

 Binary Logic
OR Operation
• This operation is represented by a plus sign.
• For example, x+y=z is read “x OR y is equal to z,” meaning that z=1 if x=1 or if y=1 or if both x=1 and y=1. If
both x=0 and y=0, then z=0.

NOT Operation
• This operation is represented by a prime (sometimes by an overbar).
• For example, x′=z (or x¯=z) is read “not x is equal to z,” meaning that z is what x is not.
• In other words, if x=1, then z=0, but if x=0, then z=1.
• The NOT operation is also referred to as the complement operation, since it changes a 1 to 0 and a 0 to 1, that
is, the result of complementing 1 is 0, and vice versa.

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 4

 Binary Logic
Truth Table
Definitions of logical operations may be listed in a compact form called truth tables.
A truth table is a table of all possible combinations of the variables, showing the relation between the values that
the variables may take and the result of the operation.
The truth tables for the operations AND and OR with variables x and y are obtained by listing all possible values
that the variables may have when combined in pairs.
For each combination, the result of the operation is then listed in a separate row. The truth tables for AND, OR,
and NOT are given in below Table. These tables clearly demonstrate the definition of the operations.
AND OR NOT
X Y Z= X.Y X Y Z= X+Y
X Z=x`
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 5

 Binary Logic
Logic Gates
Logic gates are electronic circuits that operate on one or more physical input signals to produce an output signal.
The graphic symbols used to designate the three types of gates and their input –output signals are shown in Fig.

Symbols for digital logic circuits

Input–output signals for gates

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 6

 Binary Logic
Gates with multiple inputs
• AND and OR gates may have more than two inputs.
• An AND gate with three inputs and an OR gate with four inputs are shown in Fig..
• The three-input AND gate responds with logic 1 output if all three inputs are logic 1. The output produces
logic 0 if any input is logic 0.
• The four-input OR gate responds with logic 1 if any input is logic 1; its output becomes logic 0 only when all
inputs are logic 0.

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 7

 Basic Theorems And Properties Of Boolean Algebra
Table: Postulates and Theorems of Boolean Algebra

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 8

 Basic Theorems And Properties Of Boolean Algebra
THEOREM 1(a): x + x = x . THEOREM 1(b): x . x = x

Note that theorem 1(b) is the dual of theorem 1(a) and that each step of the proof in part (b) is the dual of its counterpart in part (a).

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 9

 Basic Theorems And Properties Of Boolean Algebra
THEOREM 2(a): x +1= 1 THEOREM 6(a): x + x y = x
.

THEOREM 2(b): x . 0 = 0 by duality THEOREM 6(b): x ( x + y ) = x by duality

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 10

 Basic Theorems And Properties of Boolean Algebra
The theorems of Boolean algebra can be proven by means of truth tables. In truth tables, both sides of the
relation are checked to see whether they yield identical results for all possible combinations of the variables
involved. The following truth table verifies the first absorption theorem:

THEOREM 6(a): x + x y = x THEOREM 6(b): x ( x + y ) = x Demorgan’s Theorem (x+y)’=x’.y’

X Y XY X+XY
X Y X+Y X(X+Y) X Y X+Y (X+Y)` X’ Y’ X’.Y’
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 11

 Basic Theorems And Properties of Boolean Algebra
Operator Precedence
The operator precedence for evaluating Boolean expressions is
(1) parentheses, (2) NOT, (3) AND, and (4) OR.
In other words, expressions inside parentheses must be evaluated before all other operations.
The next operation that holds precedence is the complement, and then follows the AND and, finally, the OR.
As an example, consider the truth table for one of DeMorgan’s theorems.
The left side of the expression is ( x + y ) ′ . Therefore, the expression inside the parentheses is evaluated first and
the result then complemented.
The right side of the expression is x ′ y ′ , so the complement of x and the complement of y are both evaluated first
and the result is then ANDed.

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 12

 Basic Theorems And Properties of Boolean Algebra
Practice Exercises

1. Using the basic theorems and postulates of Boolean algebra, simplify the following Boolean
expression: F = x ′ y ′ z + x y z + x ′ y z + x y ′ z .

F= (x ′ +x) y ′ z + (x ′ +x) y z
F= y ′ z + y z
F=(y ′+ y) z
F= z

Answer: F = z

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 13

 Basic Theorems And Properties of Boolean Algebra
Practice Exercises
2. Develop a truth table for the Boolean expression F = x ′ y ′ z .

X Y Z X′ Y′ x′y′ x′y′z

0 0 0 1 1 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 14

 Basic Theorems And Properties of Boolean Algebra
Practice Exercises
By means of a timing diagram, show the signals of the outputs f and g in Fig as functions of the three inputs a, b,
and c. Use all eight possible combinations of a, b, and c.
a b c f=(abc)’ g=(a+b+c)’

0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 15

 Basic Theorems And Properties of Boolean Algebra
Practice Exercises
By means of a timing diagram, show the signals of the outputs f and g in Fig as functions of the two inputs a and
b. Use all four possible combinations of a and b.

a b f=a xor b G=a xnor b

0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 16

 BOOLEAN FU N CTIONS
• A Boolean function described by an algebraic expression consists of
 binary variables,
 the constants 0 and 1, and
 the logic operation symbols.
• For a given value of the binary variables, the function can be equal to either 1 or 0.
• As an example, consider the Boolean function
F1 = x + yz
• The function F1 is equal to 1 if x is equal to 1 or if both y and z are equal to 1. F1 is equal to 0 otherwise.
• The complement operation dictates that when y = 1, y = 0. Therefore, F1 = 1 if x = 1 or if y = 0 and z = 1.
• A Boolean function expresses the logical relationship between binary variables and is evaluated by
determining the binary value of the expression for all possible values of the variables.

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 17

 BOOLEAN FU N CTIONS
A Boolean function can be represented in a truth table. algebraic expression into a circuit diagram composed
• The number of rows in the truth table is 2n , where n is of logic gates connected in a particular structure.
the number of variables in the function.
• The binary combinations for the truth table are
obtained from the binary numbers by counting from 0
to 2n - 1.
• Table shows the truth table for the function F1.
• There are eight possible binary combinations for
assigning bits to the three variables x, y, and z.
• The column labeled F1 contains either 0 or 1 for each
of these combinations.
• The table shows that the function is equal to 1 when x
= 1 or when yz = 01 and is equal to 0 otherwise.
• A Boolean function can be transformed from an

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 18

 BOOLEAN FU N CTIONS
Simplify the function.

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 19

 BOOLEAN FU N CTIONS
Algebraic Manipulation
By reducing the number of terms, the number of literals, or both in a Boolean expression, it is often possible to
obtain a simpler circuit.
The manipulation of Boolean algebra consists of reducing an expression for the purpose of obtaining a simpler
circuit.

Functions 4 and 5 are together known as

the consensus theorem.

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 20

 BOOLEAN FU N CTIONS
Complement of a Function
The complement of a function F is F’ and is obtained from an interchange of 0’s for 1’s and 1’s for 0’s in the
value of F.
The complement of a function may be derived algebraically through DeMorgan’s theorems.
The three‐variable form of the first DeMorgan’s theorem is derived as follows, from the relevant postulates and
theorems:

The generalized form of DeMorgan’s theorems states that the complement

of a function is obtained by interchanging AND and OR operators and
complementing each literal.
11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 21
 BOOLEAN FU N CTIONS
Find the complement of the following functions by applying DeMorgan’s theorems as many times as necessary.

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 22

 BOOLEAN FU N CTIONS
Find the complement of the functions F1 and F2 of previous by taking their duals and complementing each literal.

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 23

 D I G I TA L L O G I C G AT E S
Digital Logic Gates

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 24

 D I G I TA L L O G I C G AT E S
Digital Logic Gates

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 25

 D I G I TA L L O G I C G AT E S
Digital Logic Gates

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 26

 D I G I TA L L O G I C G AT E S
Extension to Multiple Inputs
The gates except for the inverter and buffer can be extended to have more than two inputs.
A gate can be extended to have multiple inputs if the binary operation it represents is commutative and
associative.
The AND and OR operations, defined in Boolean algebra, possess these two properties.
For the OR function, we have x + y = y + x (commutative) and (x + y) + z = x + (y + z) = x + y + z (associative)
which indicates that the gate inputs can be interchanged and that the OR function can be extended to three or more
variables.

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 27

 D I G I TA L L O G I C G AT E S

11/16/2023 Dr. Anitha D B, Associate Professor, CSE-DS ATMECE 28