FIT Unit 2 Notes

Computer Software:
 Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function.
 A program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem.
There are two types of software −
 System Software
 Application Software

System Software

 The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and

extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself.
 System software is generally prepared by the computer manufacturers.
 These software products comprise of programs written in low-level languages, which
interact with the hardware at a very basic level.
 System software serves as the interface between the hardware and the end users.

Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter,

Assemblers, etc.

Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software −

 Close to the system

 Fast in speed
 Difficult to design
 Difficult to understand
 Less interactive
 Smaller in size
 Difficult to manipulate
 Generally written in low-level language

Application Software

 Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular

environment.
 All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the category
of Application software.
 Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's notepad for
writing and editing a simple text.
 It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software package, which
work together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.

Examples of Application software are the following –

 Payroll Software
 Student Record Software
  Inventory Management Software
 Income Tax Software
 Railways Reservation Software
 Microsoft Office Suite Software
 Microsoft Word
 Microsoft Excel
 Microsoft PowerPoint

Features of application software are as follows −

 Close to the user

 Easy to design
 More interactive
 Slow in speed
 Generally written in high-level language
 Easy to understand
 Easy to manipulate and use
 Bigger in size and requires large storage space

Language Processors: Assembler, Compiler and Interpreter

 Computer programs are generally written in high-level languages (like C++, Python,
and Java).
 A language processor, or language translator, is a computer program that convert
source code from one programming language to another language or human readable
language.
 They also find errors during translation.

1. Compiler

 The language processor that reads the complete source program written in high-level
language as a whole in one go and translates it into an equivalent program in machine
language is called a Compiler.
 Example: C, C++, C#.
 In a compiler, the source code is translated to object code successfully if it is free of
errors.
 The compiler specifies the errors at the end of the compilation with line numbers
when there are any errors in the source code.
 The errors must be removed before the compiler can successfully recompile the
source code again the object program can be executed number of times without
translating it again.
2. Assembler

 The Assembler is used to translate the program written in Assembly language into
machine code.
 The source program is an input of an assembler that contains assembly language
instructions.
 The output generated by the assembler is the object code or machine code
understandable by the computer.
 Assembler is basically the 1st interface that is able to communicate humans with the
machine.
 We need an assembler to fill the gap between human and machine so that they can
communicate with each other.
 Code written in assembly language is some sort of mnemonics(instructions) like
ADD, MUL, MUX, SUB, DIV, MOV and so on and the assembler is basically able to
convert these mnemonics in binary code.
 Here, these mnemonics also depend upon the architecture of the machine.
 For example, the architecture of intel 8085 and intel 8086 are different.

3. Interpreter

 The translation of a single statement of the source program into machine code is done
by a language processor and executes immediately before moving on to the next line
is called an interpreter.
 If there is an error in the statement, the interpreter terminates its translating process at
that statement and displays an error message.
 The interpreter moves on to the next line for execution only after the removal of the
error.
 An Interpreter directly executes instructions written in a programming or scripting
language without previously converting them to an object code or machine code.
 An interpreter translates one line at a time and then executes it.
 Example: Perl, Python and Matlab.
Difference Between Compiler and Interpreter

Compiler Interpreter

A compiler is a program that converts the entire An interpreter takes a source program
source code of a programming language into and runs it line by line, translating
executable machine code for a CPU. each line as it comes to it.

The compiler takes a large amount of time to An interpreter takes less amount of
analyze the entire source code but the overall time to analyze the source code but the
execution time of the program is comparatively overall execution time of the program
faster. is slower.

The compiler generates the error message only

Its Debugging is easier as it continues
after scanning the whole program, so debugging
translating the program until the error
is comparatively hard as the error can be present
is met.
anywhere in the program.

It requires less memory than a

The compiler requires a lot of memory for
compiler because no object code is
generating object codes.
generated.

No intermediate object code is

Generates intermediate object code.
generated.

The interpreter is a little vulnerable in

For Security purpose compiler is more useful.
case of security.

Examples: Python, Perl, JavaScript,

Examples: C, C++, C#
Ruby.
Linker

 The main function of the linker is to generate executable files.

 The linker takes the input as the object code which would be generated by a
compiler/assembler.
 The process of linking can be understood as a method to combine different snippets of
code in order to obtain executable code.
 There are two types of linkers available: Linkage Editor and Dynamic Linker.
 Linker also helps combine all the object modules.
 Linker is responsible to arrange the objects in the program’s address space.

Loader

 The main function of a loader is to load executable files to the main memory.
 It takes the executable files (generated by linker) as its input.
 It can be understood as a process of loading the executable codes into main memory where
it is execute further.
 There are 3 types of loaders: Absolute loading, Relocatable loading and Dynamic run-time
loading.
 It helps allocate the addresses to executable codes or files.
 It is also responsible to adjust the references that are used within the program.
Differences between Linker and Loader are as follows:

LINKER LOADER

Whereas main objective of Loader is

The main function of Linker is to generate
to load executable files to main
executable files.
memory.

The linker takes input of object code generated And the loader takes input of
by compiler/assembler. executable files generated by linker.

Linking can be defined as process of combining Loading can be defined as process of

various pieces of codes and source code to loading executable codes to main
obtain executable code. memory for further execution.

Linkers are of 2 types: Linkage Editor and Loaders are of 4 types: Absolute,
Dynamic Linker. Relocating, Direct Linking, Bootstrap.

Another use of linker is to combine all object It helps in allocating the address to
modules. executable codes/files.

Loader is also responsible for

Linker is also responsible for arranging objects
adjusting references which are used
in program’s address space.
within the program.

Introduction to MS Office

Currently, MS Office 2016 version is being used across the world and all its applications are
widely used for personal and professional purposes.

Discussed below are the applications of Microsoft Office along with each of their functions.

1. MS Word

 First released on October 25, 1983

 Extension for Doc files is “.doc”
 It is useful in creating text documents
 Templates can be created for Professional use with the help of MS Word
 Work Art, colours, images, animations can be added along with the text in the same
file which is downloadable in the form of a document
 Authors can use for writing/ editing their work

2. MS Excel

 Majorly used for making spreadsheets

  A spreadsheet consists of grids in the form of rows and columns which is easy to
manage and can be used as a replacement for paper
 It is a data processing application
 Large data can easily be managed and saved in tabular format using MS Excel
 Calculations can be done based on the large amount of data entered into the cells of a
spreadsheet within seconds
 File extension, when saved in the computer, is “.xls”
3. MS PowerPoint

 It was released on April 20, 1987

 Used to create audiovisual presentations
 Each presentation is made up of various slides displaying data/ information
 Each slide may contain audio, video, graphics, text, bullet numbering, tables etc.
 The extension for PowerPoint presentations is “.ppt”
 Used majorly for professional usage
 Using PowerPoint, presentations can be made more interactive

4. MS Access

 It was released on November 13, 1992

 It is Database Management Software (DBMS)
 Table, queries, forms and reports can be created on MS Access
 Import and export of data into other formats can be done
 The file extension is “.accdb”

5. MS Outlook

 It was released on January 16, 1997

 It is a personal information management system
 It can be used both as a single-user application or multi-user software
 Its functions also include task managing, calendaring, contact managing, journal
logging and web browsing
 It is the email client of the Office Suite
 The file extension for an Outlook file is “.pst”

6. MS OneNote

 It was released on November 19, 2003

 It is a note-taking application
 When introduced, it was a part of the Office suite only. Later, the developers made it
free, standalone and easily available at play store for android devices
 The notes may include images, text, tables, etc.
 The extension for OneNote files is “.one”
  It can be used both online and offline and is a multi-user application

Operating System

 An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer

hardware.
 An operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file
management, memory management, process management, handling input and output,
and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
 An operating system is software that enables applications to interact with a computer's
hardware.
 The software that contains the core components of the operating system is called
the kernel.
 The primary purposes of an Operating System are to enable applications (spftwares)
to interact with a computer's hardware and to manage a system's hardware and
software resources.
 Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows
Operating System, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc.
 Today, Operating systems is found almost in every device like mobile phones,
personal computers, mainframe computers, automobiles, TV, Toys etc.

Following are some of important functions of an operating System:

Memory Management

 Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part
are not in use.
 In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and how
much.
 Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
 De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been terminated.

Processor Management

 Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this task
is known as traffic controller.
 Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
 De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.

Device Management

 Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O
controller.
 Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
 Allocates the device in the efficient way.
 De-allocates devices.

File Management

 Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are often
known as file system.
 Decides who gets the resources.
 Allocates the resources.
 De-allocates the resources.

Other Important Activities

 Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents

unauthorized access to programs and data.
 Control over system performance − Recording delays between request for a service
and response from the system.
 Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and
users.
 Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other
debugging and error detecting aids.
 Coordination between other softwares and users − Coordination and assignment of
compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the
computer systems.
Types of Operating System

1. Batch Operating System

 This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly.
 There is an operator which takes similar jobs having the same requirement and
groups them into batches.
 It is the responsibility of the operator to sort jobs with similar needs.

Advantages of Batch Operating System

 It is very difficult to guess or know the time required for any job to complete.
Processors of the batch systems know how long the job would be when it is in the
queue.
 Multiple users can share the batch systems.
 The idle time for the batch system is very less.
 It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems.
Disadvantages of Batch Operating System
 The computer operators should be well known with batch systems.
 Batch systems are hard to debug.
 It is sometimes costly.
 The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails.
Examples of Batch Operating Systems: Payroll Systems, Bank Statements, etc.
2. Multi-Programming Operating System
 Multiprogramming Operating Systems can be simply illustrated as more than one
program is present in the main memory and any one of them can be kept in execution.
 This is basically used for better execution of resources.

Advantages of Multi-Programming Operating System

 Multi Programming increases the Throughput of the System.
 It helps in reducing the response time.
Disadvantages of Multi-Programming Operating System
 There is not any facility for user interaction of system resources with the system.

3. Multi-Processing Operating System

 Multi-Processing Operating System is a type of Operating System in which more than

one CPU is used for the execution of resources.
 It betters the throughput of the System.
Advantages of Multi-Processing Operating System
 It increases the throughput of the system.
 As it has several processors, so, if one processor fails, we can proceed with another
processor.
Disadvantages of Multi-Processing Operating System
 Due to the multiple CPU, it can be more complex and somehow difficult to
understand.

4. Multi-Tasking Operating System

 Multitasking Operating System is simply a multiprogramming Operating System with

having facility of a Round-Robin Scheduling Algorithm.
 It can run multiple programs simultaneously.
There are two types of Multi-Tasking Systems which are listed below.
 Preemptive Multi-Tasking
 Cooperative Multi-Tasking

Advantages of Multi-Tasking Operating System

 Multiple Programs can be executed simultaneously in Multi-Tasking Operating
System.
 It comes with proper memory management.
Disadvantages of Multi-Tasking Operating System
 The system gets heated in case of heavy programs multiple times.
5. Time-Sharing Operating Systems

 Each task is given some time to execute so that all the tasks work smoothly. Each user
gets the time of the CPU as they use a single system.
 These systems are also known as Multitasking Systems. The task can be from a single
user or different users also.
 The time that each task gets to execute is called quantum. After this time interval is
over OS switches over to the next task.

Advantages of Time-Sharing OS

 Each task gets an equal opportunity.

 Fewer chances of duplication of software.
 CPU idle time can be reduced.
 Resource Sharing: Time-sharing systems allow multiple users to share hardware
resources such as the CPU, memory, and peripherals, reducing the cost of hardware
and increasing efficiency.
 Improved Productivity: Time-sharing allows users to work concurrently, thereby
reducing the waiting time for their turn to use the computer. This increased
productivity translates to more work getting done in less time.
 Improved User Experience: Time-sharing provides an interactive environment that
allows users to communicate with the computer in real time, providing a better user
experience than batch processing.
Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS

 Reliability problem.
 One must have to take care of the security and integrity of user programs and data.
 Data communication problem.
 High Overhead: Time-sharing systems have a higher overhead than other operating
systems due to the need for scheduling, context switching, and other overheads that
come with supporting multiple users.
 Complexity: Time-sharing systems are complex and require advanced software to
manage multiple users simultaneously. This complexity increases the chance of
bugs and errors.
 Security Risks: With multiple users sharing resources, the risk of security breaches
increases. Time-sharing systems require careful management of user access,
authentication, and authorization to ensure the security of data and software.

6. Distributed Operating System

 These types of operating system is a recent advancement in the world of computer

technology and are being widely accepted all over the world and, that too, at a great
pace.
 Various autonomous interconnected computers communicate with each other using a
shared communication network. Independent systems possess their own memory unit
and CPU.
 These are referred to as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems. These
systems’ processors differ in size and function.
 The major benefit of working with these types of the operating system is that it is
always possible that one user can access the files or software which are not actually
present on his system but some other system connected within this network i.e.,
remote access is enabled within the devices connected in that network.
Advantages of Distributed Operating System

 Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as all systems are
independent of each other.
 Electronic mail increases the data exchange speed.
 Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast and durable.
 Load on host computer reduces.
 These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily added to the
network.
 Delay in data processing reduces.

Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System

 Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication.

 To establish distributed systems the language is used not well-defined yet.
 These types of systems are not readily available as they are very expensive. Not
only that the underlying software is highly complex and not understood well yet.

Examples of Distributed Operating Systems are LOCUS, etc.

7. Network Operating System

 These systems run on a server and provide the capability to manage data, users,
groups, security, applications, and other networking functions.
 These types of operating systems allow shared access to files, printers, security,
applications, and other networking functions over a small private network.
 One more important aspect of Network Operating Systems is that all the users are
well aware of the underlying configuration, of all other users within the network,
their individual connections, etc. and that’s why these computers are popularly
known as tightly coupled systems.
Advantages of Network Operating System

 Highly stable centralized servers.

 Security concerns are handled through servers.
 New technologies and hardware up-gradation are easily integrated into the system.
 Server access is possible remotely from different locations and types of systems.

Disadvantages of Network Operating System

 Servers are costly.

 User has to depend on a central location for most operations.
 Maintenance and updates are required regularly.

Examples of Network Operating Systems are Microsoft Windows Server 2003,

Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, BSD, etc.

8. Real-Time Operating System

 These types of OSs serve real-time systems. The time interval required to process
and respond to inputs is very small.
 This time interval is called response time.
Real-time systems are used when there are time requirements that are very strict
like missile systems, air traffic control systems, robots, etc.
Types of Real-Time Operating Systems

 Hard Real-Time Systems:

Hard Real-Time OSs are meant for applications where time constraints are very
strict and even the shortest possible delay is not acceptable. These systems are built
for saving life like automatic parachutes or airbags which are required to be readily
available in case of an accident. Virtual memory is rarely found in these systems.
 Soft Real-Time Systems:
These OSs are for applications where time-constraint is less strict.

Advantages of RTOS

 Maximum Consumption: Maximum utilization of devices and systems, thus more

output from all the resources.
 Task Shifting: The time assigned for shifting tasks in these systems is very less.
For example, in older systems, it takes about 10 microseconds in shifting from one
task to another, and in the latest systems, it takes 3 microseconds.
 Focus on Application: Focus on running applications and less importance on
applications that are in the queue.
 Real-time operating system in the embedded system: Since the size of programs is
small, RTOS can also be used in embedded systems like in transport and others.
 Error Free: These types of systems are error-free.
 Memory Allocation: Memory allocation is best managed in these types of systems.

Disadvantages of RTOS

 Limited Tasks: Very few tasks run at the same time and their concentration is very
less on a few applications to avoid errors.
 Use heavy system resources: Sometimes the system resources are not so good and
they are expensive as well.
  Complex Algorithms: The algorithms are very complex and difficult for the
designer to write on.
 Device driver and interrupt signals: It needs specific device drivers and interrupts
signal to respond earliest to interrupts.
 Thread Priority: It is not good to set thread priority as these systems are very less
prone to switching tasks.

Examples of Real-Time Operating Systems are Scientific experiments, medical imaging

systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.

MS-DOS Operating System

 A disk operating system (DOS) is an operating system for x86 based personal
computers mostly developed by Microsoft. MS-DOS, its rebranding as IBM PC DOS,
and some operating systems attempting to be compatible with MS-DOS. Sometimes it
is referred to as "DOS", which is also the generic acronym for disk operating system.
 MS-DOS was the main operating system for IBM PC compatible personal computers
during the 1980s. It was gradually superseded by operating systems offering a
graphical user interface (GUI) in various graphical Microsoft Windows operating
system generations.
 DOS is also used to describe several similar command-line disk operating systems.
Early computers, such as the Commodore 64, Atari 800, and Apple II, all featured a
disk operating system, including Commodore Business Machines DOS, Atari DOS,
and Apple DOS, respectively. DOS/360 was an OS for IBM mainframes, which first
appeared in 1966, but it is unrelated to the 8086-based DOS of the 1980s.
Features of DOS
 MS-DOS does not offer GUI (Graphical User Interface) and doesn't accept mouse
inputs. It is a character-based interface system where all commands are entered in
the text at the command-line prompt.
 A disk operating system manages files, folders and allows program loading and
execution. It can control hardware devices such as disk, memory and allocate
resources.
 MS-DOS offers a file system to organize, read and write files to the disk storage.
 It is a single-user operating system and performs various tasks to ensure the
proper operation of systems.
 It uses a 16-bit file allocation table (FAT16), and a 16-bit interface is used to
define the location of the memory of each file uniquely. These identifiers are
stored in a tabular format with the name File Allocation table.
 MS-DOS does not support a multiuser operating system, and it is less secure and
does not have a concept of user roles. It is very lightweight due to its basic
interface and limited features.
Limitations of MS-DOS
 Built-in security:DOS does not have built-in security, such as file ownership and
permissions.
  No multiuser or multitasking:It also does not support multiuser or multitasking. It can
only run one program at a time, but it provides direct access to the basic I/O system
and underlying hardware.
 Challenging interface: A user must type in commands and remember commands to
run programs and other OS tasks. For example, typing the command cd
\directory_name changes the current working directory to the named directory, and
typing the command dir lists the files in the current directory. This approach makes it
difficult for beginners to use.

Booting Process in DOS Operating System

What is Booting?
 Booting is a process of starting a computer or computer like device such as a
smartphone, etc.
 Therefore, booting of a computing device start when we press the power button of the
device, it makes the computer or the device ready for use.
 Actually, when a computer or any computing device is switched off, its operating
system remains in the secondary memory like hard disk of the system.
 But for execution of a software, it must be in the main memory of the system. Hence,
booting may also be defined in other words as, the process of loading the operating
system from secondary memory into main memory of the device is called booting.
 When we press power button of the device, the BIOS of the system is activated which
locates and loads the operating system into the main memory, this process of loading
the operating system into main memory is called booting.
Types of Booting
Based on the current state of the computer or computing device, the booting is classified into
the following two types −
 Cold Booting − When computer is in the powerless state, and is started by the user by
pressing the power button of the system unit. In this case, the operating system is
loaded from the disk to the main memory, this type of booting is referred to as cold
booting.
 Warm Booting − Sometimes situations arises when the system has stopped working
and needs to be restarted. In other words, when system is already running and
required to be restarted so that it will boot again, this type of booting is called warm
booting.
Booting Process in DOS Operating System
 In DOS (Disc Operating System), the booting process begins when we press the
power button of system unit and continues until the DOS command prompt is
appeared on the computer screen.
 In DOS operating system, booting process primarily deals with the loading of the
following three DOS system files into the main memory of the system −
  IO.SYS
 MSDOS.SYS
 COMMAND.COM
We can understand the booting process in DOS operating system in the following steps −
Step 1
 When the computer system is started by pressing the power button, the BIOS (Basic
Input-Output System) performs several important functionality tests on the programs
in ROM (Read Only Memory).
 This is called Power-On Self Test (POST). POST checks the system for correct
peripheral configurations, i.e. whether the peripherals are connected in perfect order
or not.
Step 2
Once the BIOS is done with the basic functionality test, it finds the master boot record
(MBR) in the first physical sector of the bootable disk as per the boot device sequence
specified.
For example, if the boot device sequence is −
 Hard Disk Drive
 Floppy Disk Drive
 CD-ROM
Step 3
 Hence, the BIOS will search for the master boot record first in the hard disk drive. If
it is not found, then search in the floppy disk drive.
 If not found in the floppy disk drive as well, the it will search in the CD-ROM. In
case, when the system is unable to find the master boot record in all these resources, it
shows a message “No Boot Device Found” on the screen and the system will stop.
 If master boot record is found in any of the bootable disk drivers, the operating
system loader (also called Bootstrap Loader) is loaded from the bootable drive into
the main memory.
Step 4
 The bootstrap loader first loads the DOS system IO.SYS, and after this it loads
the MSDOS.SYS file that is the core file of the disk operating system.
Step 5
 The MSDOS.SYS file finds the command interpreter in another system file
named CONFIG.SYS.
 When it is found, it is to be loaded into the main memory. In case when no command
interpreter is specified in the CONFIG.SYS, then the COMMAND.COM file is
 loaded into the main memory as the default command interpreter of the disk operating
system.

Step 6
 At last, the AUTOEXEC.BAT file is loaded and executed. This file contains the
sequence of DOS commands.
 Once the AUTOEXEC.BAT is loaded, the DOS command prompt is displayed on the
computer screen.
 We can see the letter of the bootable drive in the prompt screen. This indicates that
the operating system is successfully loaded from disk into the main memory. At this
stage, the system is ready to use.
 This is how the booting process takes place in the disk operating system.

High-Level Language
 A High-Level Language is a computer programming language that uses English like
statements to write the computer instructions.
 High-level languages are most widely programming languages because they are easy
to understand to human being.
Here is a list of some important characteristics of high-level languages −
 It can be easily interpreted as well as compiled in comparison to low-level language.
 It can be considered as a programmer-friendly language.
 It is easy to understand.
  It is easy to debug.
 It is simple in terms of maintenance.
 It requires a compiler/interpreter to be translated into machine code.
 It can be run on different platforms.
 It can be ported from one location to another.
 It is less memory efficient, i.e., it consumes more memory in comparison to low-level
languages.
 Examples of high-level languages include C, C++, Java, and Python.
 It is widely used.
Low-Level Language
 A Low-Level Language is also a category of computer programming language in
which the computer codes are written in the binary language or machine codes.
 Because of this, low-level language is sometimes also known as machine language.
 The low-level language is less friendly for human (programmer), but more friendly
for machine because the computer processor can directly process the codes written in
the low-level language.
The following are the important characteristics of a low-level language −
 It can be understood easily by the machine.
 It is considered as a machine-friendly language.
 It is difficult to understand.
 It is difficult to debug.
 Its maintenance is also complex.
 It is not portable.
 It depends on the machine; hence it can't be run on different platforms.
 It requires an assembler that would translate instructions.
 It is not used widely in today's times.

Low-level language High-level language

It is a machine-friendly language, i.e., the It is a user-friendly language as this language is

computer understands the machine language, written in simple English words, which can be easily
which is represented in 0 or 1. understood by humans.
The low-level language takes more time to It executes at a faster pace.
execute.

It requires the assembler to convert the assembly It requires the compiler to convert the high-level
code into machine code. language instructions into machine code.

The machine code cannot run on all machines, so The high-level code can run all the platforms, so it is
it is not a portable language. a portable language.

It is memory efficient. It is less memory efficient.

Debugging and maintenance are not easier in a Debugging and maintenance are easier in a high-
low-level language. level language.