• Protists are mostly unicellular groups of eukaryotes.

• Van Leeuwenhoek wrote, “No more pleasant sight has met my eye than
this, of so many thousands of living creatures in one small drop of
water.” The protists that fascinated van Leeuwenhoek continue to
surprise us today.
• The formal taxon "Protozoa" was established by Richard Owen in 1858.
• Protists are defined as “eukaryotic, largely unicellular organisms that
do not undergo tissue formation through the process of embryological
layering”.
• Most biologists still use the term protist, but only as a convenient way to
refer to eukaryotes that are not plants, animals, or fungi.
 Taxonomic History and Classification
▪ Antony van Leeuwenhoek is generally
credited with being the first person to
report seeing protists, in about 1675.
▪ In fact, Leeuwenhoek was the first to
describe a nunber of microscopic
aquatic life forms (e.g., rotifers),
referring to them as "animalcules" (little
animals).
▪ The name protozoon (Greek, proto,
"first"; zoon, "animal") ,was coined by
Goldfuss in 1818.
▪ On the basis of this distinction, Karl von
Siebold, in 1845, restricted the name
protozoa to apply to all unicellular
forms of animal life.
▪ It was the great naturalist Ernst Haeckel
who united the algae and Protozoa into
a single group, the Protista.
THE THREE DOMAINS IN THE TREE OF LIFE ARE BACTERIA, ARCHAEA, AND EUKARYA
▪ Domains are above the kingdom level.
▪ Proposed by Carl Woese based on rRNA studies of prokaryotes
▪ Domain model more clearly shows prokaryotic diversity
TAXONOMY
Hierarchy of classification:
(Domain then Kingdom- Largest and most encompassing)

(Species- smallest grouping- includes organisms that can interbreed)

Binomial Nomenclature = Scientific naming
▪ includes Genus and Species
▪ Genus is capitalized while species is lowercase.
▪ When in print, scientific name is italicized
▪ When handwritten, scientific name is underlined
• Domain Bacteria includes prokaryotes in the
kingdom Bacteria.

– One of largest groups

on earth
– Classified by shape,
need for oxygen, and
diseases caused
– The kingdom bacteria
includes single celled
prokaryotes
– E.g: Salmonella typhi,
Streptococcus
pneumoniae, etc.
• Domain Archaea includes prokaryotes in the
kingdom Archaea.

– A group of single-celled
prokaryotic organisms
– Cell walls chemically
different from bacteria
– Differences discovered by
studying RNA
– known for living in
extreme environments
– E.g: Pyrolobus fumarii
• Domain Eukarya includes all eukaryotes.
– Kingdom protista
– Can be heterotrophic
or autotrophic
– Most live in water
(though some live in
moist soil or even the
human body)
– The term protist
typically is used in
reference to a
eukaryote that is not
a true animal, plant,
or fungus or in
reference to a
eukaryote that lacks
a multicellular
stage.
 Four Supergroups of
Eukaryotes
The tree represents a
phylogenetic hypothesis for the
relationships among
eukaryotes on Earth today. The
eukaryotic groups at the
branch tips are related in larger
“supergroups,” labeled
vertically at the far right of the
tree. Groups that were formerly
classified in the kingdom
Protista are highlighted in
yellow. Dotted lines indicate
evolutionary relationships that
are uncertain. For clarity, this
tree only includes
representative clades from
each supergroup. In addition,
the recent discoveries of many
new groups of eukaryotes
indicate that eukaryotic
diversity is actually much
greater than shown here.
Excavata:
Monophyly has been called into
question by some recent
genomic studies have an
“Excavated” groove on one side
of the cell body. Two major
clades (the parabasalids and
diplomonads) have highly
reduced mitochondria; members
of a third clade (the
euglenozoans) have flagella that
differ in structure from those of
other organisms. Excavates
include parasites such as giardia,
as well as many predatory and
photosynthetic Species.
SAR:
This supergroup contains (and is named after) three large and very
diverse clades: Stramenopila, Alveolata, and Rhizaria. Stramenopiles
include some of the most important photosynthetic organisms on Earth,
such as the diatoms shown here. Alveolates also include photosynthetic
species, as well as important pathogens, such as Plasmodium, which
causes malaria. According to one current hypothesis, stramenopiles and
alveolates originated by secondary endosymbiosis when a heterotrophic
protist engulfed a red alga.
 Globigerina, a rhizarian in SAR. This species is
a foram, a group whose members have
threadlike pseudopodia that extend through
pores in the shell, or test (LM). The inset shows
The rhizarian subgroup of a foram test, which is hardened by calcium
SAR includes many species carbonate.

of amoebas, most of which

have pseudopodia that are
threadlike in shape.
Pseudopodia are
extensions that can bulge
from any portion of the cell;
they are used in movement
and in the capture of prey.
Archaeplastida:
This supergroup of eukaryotes includes red algae and green algae, along
with plants. Red algae and green algae include unicellular species,
colonial species, and multicellular species (including the green alga
Volvox). Many of the large algae known informally as “seaweeds” are
multicellular red or green algae. Protists in Archaeplastida include key
photosynthetic species that form the base of the food web in many aquatic
communities.

Volvox, a multicellular
freshwater green alga.
This alga has two types
of differentiated cells,
and so it is considered
multicellular rather
than colonial.
Green algae (Chlorophyta) may be single-celled, colonial,
multi-nucleate or relatively large & complex
Unikonta:
This supergroup of eukaryotes, also called Amorphea, includes amoebas
that have lobe- or tube-shaped pseudopodia, as well as animals, fungi, and
non-amoeba protists that are closely related to animals or fungi. According
to one current hypothesis, the unikonts were the first eukaryotic
supergroup to diverge from all other eukaryotes; however, this hypothesis
has yet to be widely accepted.
 ■ Excavata 5 μm
■ Archaeplastida
20 μm
50 μm

Diplomonads

Excavata
Parabasalids
Euglenozoans
Stramenopiles

Diatoms
Golden algae
Brown algae ■ “SAR” Clade 50 μm
■ Unikonta

“SAR” clade
Dinoflagellates
Alveolates

Apicomplexans
Ciliates
Forams
Rhizarians

Cercozoans
Radiolarians

100 μm
Red algae Archaeplastida
Chlorophytes
Green
algae

Charophytes
Land plants
100 μm
Amoebozoans

Slime molds
Tubulinids
Entamoebas
Unikonta

Nucleariids
Opisthokonts

Fungi
Choanoflagellates
Animals
▪ There is now considerable evidence that much
protist diversity has its origins in endosymbiosis
▪ Endosymbiosis is the process in which a
unicellular organism engulfs another cell, which
becomes an endosymbiont and then organelle in
the host cell
▪ Mitochondria evolved by endosymbiosis of an
aerobic prokaryote
▪ Plastids evolved by endosymbiosis of a
photosynthetic cyanobacterium
Plastid Evolution: A Closer Look
Supergroup Excavata:
- excavated “feeding” groove
- autotrophic or heterotrophic (predators)
Clade: Diplomonadida
Clade: Parabasala
Clade Euglenozoa
sub clade: Kinetoplastida
sub clade: Euglenophyta
➢The clade Excavata is characterized by its
cytoskeleton.
➢Some members have a feeding groove
➢This controversial group includes the diplomonads,
parabasalids, and euglenozoans.
DIPLOMONADS AND PARABASALIDS
▪ These two groups lack plastids, have modified
mitochondria, and most live in anaerobic
environments
▪ Diplomonads
▪ Have modified mitochondria called mitosomes
▪ Derive energy from anaerobic biochemical
pathways
▪ Have two equal-sized nuclei and multiple flagella
▪ Are often parasites, for example, Giardia intestinalis
(also known as Giardia lamblia)

Figure: Giardia intestinalis, a diplomonad parasite

 ▪ Parabasalids
▪ Anaerobic, lack true nuclei, Undulating membrane
▪ Have reduced mitochondria called
hydrogenosomes that generate some energy
anaerobically
▪ Include Trichomonas vaginalis, the pathogen that
causes yeast infections in human females

Flagella

Undulating
membrane

Figure: Trichomonas vaginalis

 EUGLENOZOANS
▪ Euglenozoa is a diverse clade that includes predatory
heterotrophs, photosynthetic autotrophs, and parasites
▪ The main feature distinguishing them as a clade is a
spiral or crystalline rod of unknown function inside
their flagella
▪ This clade includes the kinetoplastids and euglenids

Trypanasoma sp.
 KINETOPLASTIDS
▪ Kinetoplastids have a single mitochondrion with
an organized mass of DNA called a kinetoplast
▪ They include free-living consumers of prokaryotes
in freshwater, marine, and moist terrestrial
ecosystems
▪ This group includes Trypanosoma, which causes
sleeping sickness in humans
▪ Another pathogenic trypanosome causes Chagas’
disease
▪ Trypanosomes evade immune responses by
switching surface proteins
 Supergroup SAR
Clade: Stramenopila – flagella with hair-like projections
sub clade: Bacillariophyta
sub clade: Phaeophyta
sub clade: Chrysophyta
Clade: Alveolata – Membrane bound sacs under PM
sub clade: Dinoflagellata
sub clade: Apicomplexa
sub clade: Ciliophora
Clade Rhizaria – Amoeba with thread-like pseudopods
sub clade: Foraminifera
sub clade: Radiolaria
 STRAMENOPILES
▪ The clade Stramenopila includes important
phototrophs as well as several clades of
heterotrophs
▪ Most have a “hairy” flagellum paired with a
“smooth” flagellum
▪ Stramenopiles include diatoms, golden algae,
brown algae, and oomycetes
▪ MOST abundant autotroph in oceans and lakes
 DIATOMS
▪ Diatoms are unicellular algae with a unique two-
part, glass-like wall of hydrated silica
▪ Diatoms usually reproduce asexually, and
occasionally sexually
▪ Diatoms are a major component of phytoplankton
and are highly diverse
▪ Fossilized diatom walls compose much of the
sediments known as diatomaceous earth
▪ After a diatom population has bloomed, many dead
individuals fall to the ocean floor undecomposed
▪ This removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
and “pumps” it to the ocean floor
 GOLDEN ALGAE
SUB-CLADE: CHRYSOPHYTA
▪ Golden algae are named for their color, which results from
their yellow and brown carotenoids
▪ The cells of golden algae are typically biflagellated, with both
flagella near one end
▪ All golden algae are photosynthetic, and some are mixotrophs
▪ Most are unicellular, but some are colonial
 BROWN ALGAE
SUB-CLADE: PHAEOPHYTA
▪ Brown algae are the largest and most complex algae
▪ All are multicellular, and most are marine
▪ Brown algae include many species commonly called “seaweeds”
▪ Brown algae have the most complex multicellular anatomy of all
algae

▪ Giant seaweeds called kelps live in

deep parts of the ocean
▪ The algal body is plantlike but lacks
true roots, stems, and leaves and is
called a thallus
▪ The rootlike holdfast anchors the
stemlike stipe, which in turn supports
the leaflike blades
 ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS
▪ A variety of life cycles have evolved among the
multicellular algae
▪ The most complex life cycles include an alternation
of generations, the alternation of multicellular
haploid and diploid forms
▪ Heteromorphic generations are structurally
different, while isomorphic generations look similar
▪ The diploid sporophyte produces haploid flagellated
spores called zoospores
▪ The zoospores develop into haploid male and female
gametophytes, which produce gametes
▪ Fertilization of gamates results in a diploid zygote,
which grows into a new sporophyte
 DINOFLAGELLATES
▪ Dinoflagellates have two flagella and each cell is
reinforced by cellulose plates
▪ They are abundant components of both marine and
freshwater phytoplankton
▪ They are a diverse group of aquatic phototrophs,
mixotrophs, and heterotrophs
▪ Toxic “red tides” are caused by dinoflagellate blooms

Flagella
 APICOMPLEXANS
▪ Apicomplexans are parasites of animals, and some
cause serious human diseases
▪ They spread through their host as infectious cells called
sporozoites
▪ One end, the apex, contains a complex of organelles
specialized for penetrating host cells and tissues
▪ Most have sexual and asexual stages that require two or
more different host species for completion
▪ The apicomplexan Plasmodium is the parasite that
causes malaria
▪ Plasmodium requires both mosquitoes and humans to
complete its life cycle
▪ Approximately 900,000 people die each year from
malaria
▪ Efforts are ongoing to develop vaccines that target this
pathogen
 CILIOPHORA
▪ Ciliates, a large varied group of protists, are named
for their use of cilia to move and feed
▪ They have large macronuclei and small micronuclei
▪ Genetic variation results from conjugation, in which
two individuals exchange haploid micronuclei
▪ Conjugation is a sexual process, and is separate
from reproduction, which generally occurs by binary
fission
 OOMYCETES (WATER MOLDS AND
THEIR RELATIVES)

▪ Oomycetes include water molds, white rusts, and

downy mildews
▪ They were once considered fungi based on
morphological studies
▪ Most oomycetes are decomposers or parasites
▪ They have filaments (hyphae) that facilitate nutrient
uptake
▪ Their ecological impact can be great, as in potato
blight caused by Phytophthora infestans
 Germ tube Oogonium
Egg nucleus
Cyst (n) Antheridial
hypha with
MEIOSIS sperm nuclei
Hyphae (n)
ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION

Zoospore
(2n)
FERTILIZATION
Zygote Zygotes
germination SEXUAL (oospores)
REPRODUCTION (2n)
Zoosporangium
(2n)

Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
 RHIZARIANS ARE A DIVERSE GROUP OF
PROTISTS DEFINED BY DNA SIMILARITIES

▪ DNA evidence supports Rhizaria as a monophyletic

clade
▪ Amoebas move and feed by pseudopodia; some but
not all belong to the clade Rhizaria
▪ Rhizarians include radiolarians, forams, and
cercozoans
 RADIOLARIANS
▪ Marine protists called radiolarians have tests fused
into one delicate piece, usually made of silica
▪ Radiolarians use their pseudopodia to engulf
microorganisms through phagocytosis
▪ The pseudopodia of radiolarians radiate from the
central body

Pseudopodia

200 m
 FORAMS / FORAMINIFERANS
▪ Foraminiferans, or forams, are named for porous,
generally multichambered shells, called tests
▪ Pseudopodia extend through the pores in the test
▪ Foram tests in marine sediments form an extensive
fossil record
▪ Many forams have endosymbiotic algae
 CERCOZOANS
▪ Cercozoans include most amoeboid and flagellated
protists with threadlike pseudopodia
▪ They are common in marine, freshwater, and soil
ecosystems
▪ Most are heterotrophs, including parasites and
predators
▪ Paulinella chromatophora is an autotroph with a
unique photosynthetic structure
▪ This structure evolved from a different
cyanobacterium than the plastids of other
photosynthetic eukaryotes
RED ALGAE AND GREEN ALGAE ARE THE CLOSEST RELATIVES OF
LAND PLANTS
▪ Over a billion years ago, a heterotrophic protist acquired a
cyanobacterial endosymbiont
▪ The photosynthetic descendants of this ancient protist
evolved into red algae and green algae
▪ Land plants are descended from the green algae
▪ Archaeplastida is the supergroup that includes red algae,
green algae, and land plants
 RED ALGAE
▪ Red algae are reddish in color due to an accessory pigment
called phycoerythrin, which masks the green of chlorophyll
▪ The color varies from greenish-red in shallow water to dark
red or almost black in deep water
▪ Red algae are usually multicellular; the largest are seaweeds
▪ Red algae are the most abundant large algae in coastal
waters of the tropics
 GREEN ALGAE

▪ Green algae are named for their grass-green chloroplasts

▪ Plants are descended from the green algae
▪ Green algae are a paraphyletic group
▪ The two main groups are chlorophytes and charophyceans
▪ Charophytes are most closely related to land plants
▪ Most chlorophytes live in fresh water, although many are
marine
▪ Other chlorophytes live in damp soil, as symbionts in lichens,
or in snow
▪ Larger size and greater complexity evolved in chlorophytes by
1. The formation of colonies from individual cells
2. The formation of true multicellular bodies by cell
division and differentiation (e.g., Ulva)
3. The repeated division of nuclei with no cytoplasmic
division (e.g., Caulerpa)
UNIKONTS INCLUDE PROTISTS THAT ARE CLOSELY RELATED TO
FUNGI AND ANIMALS
▪ The supergroup Unikonta includes animals, fungi,
and some protists
▪ This group includes two clades: the amoebozoans
and the opisthokonts (animals, fungi, and related
protists)
▪ The root of the eukaryotic tree remains controversial
▪ It is unclear whether unikonts separated from other
eukaryotes relatively early or late
RESULTS Choanoflagellates

Animals
Unikonta
Fungl
Common
Amoebozoans
ancestor
of all
eukaryotes Diplomonads
Excavata
Euglenozoans

Alveolates
Chromalveolata
Stramenopiles

DHFR-TS Rhizarians Rhizaria

gene
fusion Red algae

Green algae Archaeplastida

Plants
 Brief Classification of Protista
Protozoa
Protozoans are unicellular organisms. Historically, protozoans were called “animal”
protists as they are heterotrophic and showed animal-like behaviours.

There are also parasitic protozoans which live in the cells of larger organisms. Most
of the members do not have a predefined shape. For instance, an amoeba can
change its shape indefinitely but a paramecium has a definite slipper-like shape.
The most well-known examples of protozoans are amoeba, paramecium, euglena.
Unlike other members of this group, euglena is a free-living protozoan that has
chlorophyll, which means it can make its own food.

The protozoans can be divided into four major groups:

Amoeboid protozoans – Mostly found in water bodies, either fresh or saline. They
have pseudopodia (false feet) which help to change their shape and in capturing
and engulfing food. E.g. Amoeba
Flagellated protozoans – As the name suggests, the members of this group have
flagella. They can be free-living as well as parasitic. E.g. Euglena
Ciliated protozoans – They have cilia all over their body which help in locomotion
as well as nutrition. They are always aquatic. E.g. Paramecium
Sporozoans – These organisms are so-called because their life cycle has a spore-
like stage. For example, the malarial parasite, Plasmodium.
Slime Moulds
Slime moulds are saprophytic organisms (they feed on the dead and decaying
matter). These are tiny organisms that have many nuclei.

Usually, Slime moulds are characterized by the presence of aggregates called

plasmodium and are even visible to the naked eye.
Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates and Euglenoids
These form another category under kingdom Protista. These are generally single-
celled or multicellular organisms. These are photosynthetic, found mostly in
freshwater sources or marine lakes. They are characterized by a stiff cell wall.

Example of chrysophytes include diatoms and golden algae. They are characterised
by the presence of a hard siliceous cell wall. Diatomaceous earth is formed due to the
accumulation of cell wall deposits. They are photosynthetic organisms.

Dinoflagellates are photosynthetic and found in various different colours, according

to the pigment present in them. They show bioluminescence and known to cause red
tide.

Euglenoids are the link between plants and animals. They lack a cell wall but perform
photosynthesis. In the absence of sunlight, they act as a heterotroph and feed on
small organisms. The outer body covering is a protein-rich layer known as a pellicle.
E.g. Euglena, Trachelomonas, etc.