POLYMERS

A polymer is a large molecule containing hundreds or thousands of atoms formed by combining

one, two or occasionally more kinds of small monomers into chain or network structures.
Plastics are polymers consisting of large chain-like molecules. Plastics are taken to be mainly
organic materials derived from petroleum and, to a small extent from coal, which at some stage
in processing are plastic when heated. Plastics consist of molecules joined together to form
chain molecules, or polymers which are normally randomly coiled. Identical molecules or
monomers, when polymerized, produce homopolymers. Plastics offer the advantages of low
density and good resistance to the environment compared with competitive materials.

Polymer types
Polymers are normally categorized in respect of their physical properties as either
thermoplastics, thermosetting or elastomers.

Thermoplastics
The thermoplastics always soften when heated and harden again on cooling, provided they are
not overheated. When they are heated the molecular chains are able to move relative to one
another. On cooling, thermoplastics regain their original degree of stiffness, a process which
can be reversed much as to cause degradation. Many thermoplastics are soluble in organic
solvents, whilst others swell by solvent absorption. Under prolonged and constant stress they
exhibit increasing deformation with time (i.e. creep or cold flow) and permissible working
stresses must take this phenomenon into account. Examples include; polyethylene (PE),
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyvinyl fluoride (PVF), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), etc.

Thermosetting plastics
They undergo an irreversible chemical change in which the molecular chains cross-link so they
cannot subsequently be appreciably softened by heat. Excessive heating causes charring. Cross-
linking, which produces a characteristically rigid structure, is brought about by a chemical
curing agent (catalyst or hardener). In resins such as epoxides and polyesters the reaction occurs
at room temperature, while in resin such as phenol formaldehyde the catalyst becomes active
only when subjected to heat and pressure. Thermosetting plastics are generally relatively rigid
and hard and resist scratching to varying degrees. The main thermosetting plastics are: phenol
formaldehyde (PF), Polyesters (UP), epoxide resins (EP), silicones (SI), etc.

Elastomers
Elastomers are long-chain polymers in which the naturally helical or zig-zag molecular chains
are free to straighten when the material is stretched, and recover when the load is removed. The
degree of elasticity depends on the extensibility of the polymeric chains. Thus natural rubber
is highly extensible, but when sulphur is added, the vulcanization process increasingly restricts
movement by locking together adjacent polymer chains.

Properties of plastics
Properties vary widely depending upon the basic formulation and the presence of additives
such as stabilizers, ultra-violet absorbers, fire retardants, reinforcements, fillers and pigments.

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Strength

Plastics have tensile strength: weight ratios which are much more favorable than those of most
metals but the modulus of elasticity (E) is low even compared to aluminium and glass, thus
rules them out for load-bearing beams. However, the low modulus of elasticity ceases to be a
disadvantage in continuous surface structures in which the load is uniformly distributed over
the whole surface and these structures are also better adapted to accommodate the
characteristically high thermal movement of plastics materials.

Electrical properties

Plastics are excellent insulators but electrostatic charges attract dust and sparking can be a
hazard where flammable vapors are present. Polyester floorings are less likely to cause
problems than nylons and acrylics, but conductive ingredients must be included where an anti-
static surface is necessary.

Durability

Plastics do not rot or corrode and in general they have extremely good resistance to the
chemicals normally encountered in building work. The performance of plastics products vary
widely with the type of polymer and with any compounding ingredients used, the control
exercised in manufacture and the dirt deposits, temperature and weather peculiar to the
situation in which they are exposed.

Plastic forming processes

Depending on the nature of the product, plastics may be formed by either continuous or batch
processes. With thermoplastics, frequently a two-stage process is most appropriate in which
the raw materials, supplied by the primary manufacturer as powder or granules, are formed into
an extrusion or sheet which is then reformed into the finished product.

Continuous processes

Extrusion: plastic granules are fed continuously into the heated barrel of a screw extruder,
which forces the molten thermoplastic through an appropriately shaped die to produce rod, tube
or the required section. Products include pipes, rainwater goods and fibers.

Film blowing: as a molten thermoplastic tube is produced in the extrusion process, air is blown
in to form a continuous plastic sheet, which is then rolled flat and trimmed to produce a folded
sheet. Adjustment of the applied air pressure controls the sheet thickness.

Film and sheet casting: hot melt or solution is fed over a chilled roll or on to a chilled moving
band.

Calendaring: this is the forming of sheet by passing plastics melt between hot rolls followed
by cooled rolls. By this means two or more sheets can be laminated together or bonded to a
hessian or felt backing as in some flooring materials.

Batch processes

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Transfer molding: this is a form of compression molding in which plastic materials in a shot
cavity is preheated before being forced through channels into a mold. The process can be used
for thermosetting as well as thermoplastic materials and is suitable for delicate or complicated.

Injection molding: thermoplastic granules or powder are made plastic by heat and injected into
a mold in which they cool and harden. The process is rapid and several small products are made
together in a single mold while moldings as large as a 273 liter cistern can be formed.

Blow molding: a soft pliant tube is extruded and the halves of a mold close round it nipping it
together at the top and bottom. At the same time a probe punctures the tube, air is blown in and
the plastics material takes the shape of the mold.

Rotational molding: this is used to form large hollow articles such as cold water cisterns. A
measured quantity of thermoplastic powder, usually low density polythene, is placed in a
female mold which is rotated about two axes and heated so that the plastic sinters over the
internal surface of the mold forming a wall of uniform thickness.

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BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
General usage of the term ‘bituminous’ covers products based on tar as well as those based on
bitumen, though bitumen-based products are more widely employed in all forms of
construction.

The bituminous group of materials offers the following general attractions:

 Excellent resistance to absorption of water

 Good adhesion to many materials
 Resistance to dilute acids and alkalis
 Good flexibility at normal temperatures
 Properties can be varied to suit application

Problems/ disadvantages associated with bituminous materials are:

 They tend to become brittle at low temperatures and soft at high temperatures
 They are subject to creep
 They have low inherent stiffness and so must be carefully blended with harder materials
where stresses are encountered

Bitumen
Bitumen consists essentially of hydrocarbons of varying molecular size which are soluble in
carbon disulphide. The larger molecular weight fractions are of solid nature and these are
dispersed in the lower molecular weight fractions which are either of a resinous or an oily
nature.

Bitumens occur naturally in the form of asphalt and have been used successfully over many
centuries in a wide variety of applications. They are now more commonly produced
synthetically, either by distillation or by air-blowing of oil, the bitumen being left as a residue
after the evaporation of volatile fractions. The properties of the final bitumen depend on the
composition of the crude oil, the type of production process and the temperature to which it is
heated. Bitumens may be of the straight-run type, which have high viscosity and will need to
be heated to become workable, or the cut-back variety, which have lower viscosity, due to the
addition of fluxing oils such as kerosene.

Production process

The crude oil is initially heated in a distillation column to between 300 and 350˚C as a result
of which volatile fractions vaporize and are removed, producing kerosene and gas oil according
to the position in the distillation column. The remaining material, known as the ‘long residue’,
must be further processed to produce bitumen and this is done by heating in a partial vacuum
in order to obtain further vaporization without raising the temperature to over 400˚C, which
would cause decomposition of the residue. The resulting ‘short’ residue may be modified by
air blowing, carried out at a temperature of about 300˚C. The amount of air blowing can be
varied, but road grades are usually subjected to a limited amount of this treatment.

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The essential feature of bitumen is that they are solid at ordinary temperatures and must
therefore be heated prior to application, whether in roofing, flooring or roads. They are
nevertheless widely employed since they have the advantage that hardening takes place
immediately on cooling, so that there is only a minimal delay between construction and use.
For grading purposes blown bitumens are described by their penetration and/or their softening
point. Penetration is the distance that a standard shaped needle will penetrate a sample of
bitumen when loaded in a standard manner. The penetration is measured in units of 0.1 mm,
e.g. ‘200 pen’ bitumen means 20 mm penetration. Penetrations for most purposes lie in the
range 30 – 300. The softening point temperature is fund by a ring and ball test. When bitumens
have a penetration of less than, say, 100, the softening point test tends to give a more sensitive
indication of hardness.

Forms
Cutback bitumens

These usually comprise straight-run bitumens to which volatile fluxing oil such as kerosene or
creosote is added in order to reduce viscosity. The handling and placing of products based on
cutback bitumens can take place at much lower temperatures than straight-run bitumens.
Subsequent hardening is by solvent evaporation; hence it is generally considerably slower than
that of straight-run bitumens. The main application of cutback bitumens is in surface dressings.
Cutbacks are graded using the standard viscometer in which the time in seconds for 50 ml of
cutback to flow through a standard orifice at a standard temperature is measured. Values range
typically from 50 to 200 s.

Bitumen emulsions

A bitumen emulsion contains minute bitumen particles – around 1 μm in size – dispersed in

water by means of an emulsifying agent. These agents impart electric charges to the particle
surface, thereby causing them to repel and prevent the formation of a continuous solid mass.
Two types of emulsifier may be used: anionic emulsifiers, which impart a negative charge to
the bitumen, and cationic emulsifiers which impart a positive charge.

The mechanism of solidification (‘breaking’) of emulsions commences when the emulsion

contacts the mineral aggregate, which begins to inactivate the emulsifier by water absorption.
In the case of cationic emulsions, breaking may be assisted by the neutralization of the positive
charge by the negative charges that are often present on solid mineral materials such as silica.
Hence, cationic emulsions tend to break more quickly than ionic emulsions and may break
without drying of the water. Anionic emulsions are nevertheless cheaper and more commonly
used. Breaking is normally accompanied by a change in color from brown to black.

Bitumen emulsions are widely used to produce damp-proof membranes, as curing membranes
in concrete road bases, as tack-coats in road surfacing and in surface dressings.

Blown bitumen

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It is obtained by passing air under pressure at a higher temperature through the bitumen. It can
be used as roofing and damp-proofing felts, in the manufacture of pipe asphalts and joint fillers,
as heat insulating material, etc.

Road tar
Road tar is obtained by the destructive distillation of coal (or, less commonly, wood or shale)
in the absence of air at temperatures up to 1000˚C. The tar is driven off as a thick brown vapor,
which is condensed and collected. The condensate is referred to as crude tar and this must be
treated to produce road tars. Treatment comprises distillation at temperatures up to 350˚C in
which light oil and creosote are progressively driven off. The remaining material (residue) is
described as base tar or pitch and this is fluxed back with selected tar oils to give a road tar
with the desired viscosity and distillation characteristics.

Asphalts and macadams

Asphalts are bituminous mixtures containing substantial amounts of fine material in the form
of sand and filler. The sand and filler, together with the binder, form a stiff ‘mortar’ which
provides strength and stiffness in the final product. They are described as ‘gap graded’ since
there is little material between the sizes 2.36 and 10 mm. They employ relatively hard bitumen
in quite high proportions to produce an impermeable product with low void content and high
durability.

Macadams are materials which rely mainly on particle interlock rather than a stiff mortar to
provide strength and stiffness. They normally contain a wide range of particle size in a
continuous grading; voids in the material being filled by particles of smaller size, as in concrete.
Macadams coated with a bituminous binder are described as ‘coated’ macadams. The bitumen
acts as a lubricant as well as a binder during compaction. Macadams use smaller quantities of
bitumen than asphalts – typically 4 – 6 per cent, and hence are slightly cheaper than asphalts.
Some macadams for road base construction may not have a bituminous binder, and are referred
to as ‘wet-mix’ and ‘dry-bound’ macadams.

The principal forms of asphalts and macadams are as follows:

Hot rolled asphalt: these comprise a mixture of aggregate, filler and ‘asphaltic cement’ which
would generally be a 50 ‘pen’ bitumen. They may be used in road-bases, base courses and
wearing courses. The optimum binder content in rolled asphalt is that at which maximum
density and load-bearing capacity are obtained. Hot-rolled asphalts have low permeability and
high durability and are widely used on heavily loaded roads and city streets.

Mastic asphalts: these are high-quality surfacing materials with relatively large binder content
– between 6 and 20 per cent of bitumen of low penetration, typically 15 and 25. The aggregate
may be natural rock asphalt. Relatively high application temperatures in the region of 200˚C
are necessary and the material is spread by hand. The product contains less than 1 per cent
voids and is impermeable. An important use is in road carriageways subject to the highest
traffic intensities, application including bridge decks, tunnels and deceleration areas.

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Bitumen macadam: these are based on bitumens of 100 – 300 penetration, together with graded
aggregates of size up to 40 mm depending on thickness. They have lower fines content leading
to a higher void content than asphalts. This reduces progressively due to compaction of traffic.
Macadams have good workability due to their low fines content and are easier to lay than hot-
rolled asphalts. The texture of macadam depends on the maximum aggregate size and on the
actual content of fines – the amount of material passing a 3.35 mm sieve.

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MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Some properties which relate to certain construction materials include;

Strength

Materials must be capable of safely supporting their own weight and any applied loads without
distortion which would reduce the efficiency of a structure. When a material is said to be
‘strong’ it is its strength in tension which is usually referred to, but it is often necessary to know
its strength properties in compression, shear and torsion. Also, strength properties vary with
the rate and frequency of loading and, in non-homogeneous materials, with the direction of
loading. Strength properties are further influenced by the moisture content of the materials such
as timber and the temperature of materials such as plastics. Materials which are subjected to a
force are said to be stressed and the change in shape is known as strain. With increasing load,
at a point which is not always clearly defined, materials cease to be elastic and become plastic
and undergo permanent distortion. Materials which do this to a high degree are ductile as
distinct from brittle materials.

Fatigue

A failure phenomenon that is closely related of brittle fracture is caused by repeated exposure
to cyclic stresses. This type of failure results is fracture below the ultimate strength of ductile
materials of below the fracture strength of brittle materials. This process, like fracture, is caused
by the initiation and propagation of cracks. Fatigue is particularly important because it can
cause catastrophic failure in even the largest structures due to small, virtually unnoticeable
stress fluctuations over long periods of time.

Creep

Fatigue is an example of the influence of time on the mechanical properties of a material.

Another example of a time-dependent mechanical property is creep. Creep sometimes called
viscoplasticity, is defined as time-dependent deformation under constant stress, usually at
elevated temperatures.

Deformations

Quite large movements may not be important where loss of strength, water-tightness or good
appearance will not result, but they should be foreseen and prevented. Broadly, deformation
may be caused by deterioration of materials, e.g. expansion caused by sulphate attack on
Portland cement, or by frost, corrosion, corrosion or fire. Deformations may be caused by;

 Applied loads, either design loads, or accidental loads arising from errors in structural
design or from overloading
 Changes in moisture content of materials
 Changes in temperature of materials

Movement caused by applied loads: in small buildings deformations arising from applied loads
are normally insignificant but in large structures they may require to be accommodated by pin

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joints and sliding bearings. Most materials are elastic to some degree and many materials
exhibit plastic flow or creep and are permanently distorted if a load is sustained.

Movements caused by changes in moisture content of materials: most materials expand to some
extent when they are wetted and contract when they are dry. These dimensional changes are
known as moisture movements. Initial movements of manufactured materials (e.g. shrinkage
in drying of new concrete products, and expansion in absorption of water by ceramic products)
are partially irreversible movements. These tend to be greater than the reversible movements
which accompany subsequent wetting or drying.

Movement caused by changes in temperature: almost all materials expand when they are heated
and contract when they cool. The movement of solids is expressed as the increase in length per
unit length for one-degree Celsius rise in temperature. Changes in temperature of materials
may result from atmospheric heat, solar radiation or from heating installations.

Deterioration

All materials deteriorate and the function of the designer is to anticipate the changes which will
occur in service. With due regard to cost-in-use the designer must use materials in the correct
context and inform the building owner what after care will be needed to ensure a maximum
life. He must also foresee not only common eventualities but the occasional events such as
attempts at burglary and fire. The lives of many materials which are exposed externally, or
those subject to abrasion, e.g. floorings, are often dependent upon the removal of contaminants
and the maintenance of a first line of defense in the form of protective coatings. Direct or
indirect causes of deterioration include; corrosion of metals, sunlight, biological agencies,
water, crystallization of salts, frost, chemical action, loss of volatiles, impact and abrasion,
vibration and fire.

Sunlight: sunlight causes degradation of clear finishes, paints, rubber, bituminous products and
some plastics and loss of color in pigments.

Biological agencies: insects and some animals attack organic materials, mainly timber.
Importantly, sulphate-reducing bacteria produce sulphides from sulphates which corrode iron,
steel and lead pipes in the ground.

Water: some building materials, such as gypsum plasters and magnesium oxychloride flooring,
are sufficiently soluble in water to preclude their use in damp situations. Timber slabs and
similar materials lose a proportion of their strength, and many flooring materials have less
resistance to abrasion when they are wet. Water also provides conditions which favor fungal
attack, certain chemical reactions including electrolytic action, and frost damage. Alternative
wetting and drying causes surface crazing and cracking of timber.

Crystallization of salts: soluble salts are derived from the ground or marine atmospheres or are
formed by the constituents of building materials. Moisture evaporating from surfaces brings
salts forward, giving rise to efflorescence. Where salts crystallize on the surface the effect may
be merely disfiguring, but crystallization in the pores of the surface layer may cause gradual

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erosion or flaking. Often parts which are most sheltered suffer more severely suffer more
severely than where rain tends to wash out the salts.

Frost: water expands when it freezes, at 4˚C, and where it is contained in pores it causes decay.
Materials with laminar structures are more liable to deteriorate.

Chemical action: chemical action may affect volume, strength as in the corrosion of metals,
appearance, e.g. acid attack on stones, bricks and concrete and it causes deterioration of roof
coverings. Aggressive gases increase the erosive effect of rainwater, and materials in industrial
plants may require special protection. Ground water, industrial wastes, wet clay bricks, soil and
ashes often contain soluble sulphates which attack cement products and metals. The effect is
expansion of Portland cement products and metals.

Loss of volatiles: this is a cause of loss of brittleness and shrinkage of plastics, paints and
mastics.

Fire: fire is a chemical reaction for which fuel, heat and a critical proportion of oxygen are all
needed. Most solids and liquids give off vapor when they are heated and it is this which burns
as flame. In fires, materials may melt, burn, lose strength, expand, or shrink and crack.

TESTING OF MATERIALS
The performance of building materials often has many facets, failure to consider all of them
sometimes lead to premature distress in spite of careful attention to most areas of performance.
Limit state design codes address this situation by considering each mode of failure and the
design process carried out so as to produce an acceptable low risk of failure in each mode.

Strength

Strength may be defined as the ability of a material or component to carry load without
structural failure or excessive deformation. The common strength test is the tensile test.

The tensile test

A typical tensile test is performed in what is known as a universal testing apparatus. The
specimen to be tested is typically in the shape of a “dog bone” such that the specimen is wider
at the ends than in the center to facilitate mounting in the specimen grips. The sample cross
section can be any geometry, as long as it is uniform along the distance between the grips,
known as the gauge length. The gauge length can be any length though lengths of 25 mm and
50 mm are common. One grip, typically the top grip, is attached to a non-movable load cell
that is mounted to the test frame. The load cell measures the force being imparted to the sample.
The other grip is to a movable portion of the frame called the crosshead. The crosshead moves
downward at a specified rate, called the crosshead speed, which imparts a known extension
rate to the sample. These rates are normally very slow, on the order of fractions of an inch per
minute.

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The tensile test is typically destructive, i.e. the sample is extended until it plastically deforms
or breaks, though this need not be the case if only elastic modulus determinations are desired.
The “raw data” from a tensile test are the load versus elongation measurements made by the
load cell and the extensiometer. To eliminate sample geometry effects, the extension is divided
by the initial length to obtain the dimensionless strain and the load is divided by the cross-
sectional area to obtain the stress. Stress is plotted versus stain, and the result is a stress-strain
diagram.

Stiffness

The stiffness of a material or component may be defined as its ability to resist deformation (as
distinct from failure) under stress. Stiffness is measured by the term modulus of elasticity, E,
the ratio of the stress applied to a component to the strain resulting from that stress.

Once a stress-strain diagram has been generated, a number of important mechanical properties
for a material can be obtained. Consider the stress-strain diagram for mild steel in Figure 3.1.
Several points have been labeled for ease of identification. The elastic region of the diagram is
easily identifiable. It begins at the origin and is the constant slope region of the graph. The
tensile modulus, E, can be determined as the slope of the stress-strain curve in the elastic region.
The stress at point U is called the ultimate strength.

Figure 3.1: Stress-strain curve for mild steel

Toughness (impact resistance)

The toughness of a material reflects its ability to absorb energy suddenly by impact. An impact
is a rapidly applied stress, though it is not the stress which causes the damage so much as the
energy associated with its application, which must be dispersed or absorbed by the material.
Toughness can be measured by the pendulum type machines. A standard sample, containing a
notch to initiate failure, is carefully placed in the machine and subjected to impact by the
weighted pendulum. The energy absorbed is equal to the loss of energy of the pendulum as
indicated by the difference in height between pre- and post-impact height positions. The result
depends upon the specimen size and geometry – especially the root of the notch which

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concentrates the stress. Temperature can also have a marked effect especially in the more brittle
metals, which absorb much less energy at lower temperatures. The test must therefore be taken
as an index of performance rather than an indication of performance of real structures.
Toughness can also be expressed as the area under the stress-strain curve up to the point of
fracture (Figure 3.2). Thus, it is booth a measure of a material’s strength and ability to deform
plastically. A material with low strength and high ductility may possess more toughness than
one with high strength and low ductility.

Figure 3.2: stress-strain diagram showing (1) modulus, (2) yield strength, (3) ultimate tensile
strength, (4) ductility, and (5) toughness.

Resilience

This is similar to toughness in that it relates to energy absorption. However, in this case, the
energy must be absorbed elastically. Resilience may be measured in a similar way to toughness,
except that the pendulum should not break the sample, but should rebound. The amount of
rebound (representing the elastic energy returned to the pendulum from the material) compared
to the initial pendulum energy represents the resilience. Resilient materials should have a long
elastic range – rubber is a good example.

Ductility

Ductility can be described by giving a quantitative value by reporting the percent elongation at
failure. This point is indicated by point 4 in Figure 3.2. Note that in most cases, there is an
elastic recovery after fracture (the slope is equal to that given by point 1) that must be accounted
for in determining the final elongation. The % elongation at facture is thus dependent upon the
initial gauge length, which should be cited when reporting values of ductility.

Hardness

This may be defined as resistance to indentation under load and is often used to measure the
resistance of a surface to local damage by stress or impact. Tests for hardness normally involve
measuring the diameter of the permanent depression left by application of a hardened ball to
the surface under a standard load, for example, Brinell hardness used in metal testing. The

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Schmidt hammer is similarly used to assess the compressive strength of concrete from its
hardness.

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