 Networks is a set of

technologies – including
hardware, software and
media – that can be
used to
 connect computers
together, enabling them
to communicate,
exchange information
and share
 resources in real time
COMPUTER NETWORKS AND INTERNET
Networks is a set of technologies including hardware, software and media that can be
used to connect computers together, enabling them to communicate, exchange
information and share resources in real time
Some benefits of networks are:
 Resource sharing (cost savings): Sometimes in organizations workers may need to use the
same
data at the same time e.g. company’s quarterly sales report to be viewed by many users. For
this companies can common data is stored on a network servers, which is a central computer
with a large storage and other resources which users (clients) have to share. If the server stores
data files for users to access, it is commonly called a file server.
Peripheral Devices like printer and photocopiers can also be shared using networks instead of
installing a printer to each client. Printers can be shared either by connecting a printer directly
to the network or it can be attached to a print server, which is a computer that manages one or
more computer
Some benefits of networks are:

 Resource sharing (cost savings): Sometimes in organizations workers may need to use
the same data at the same time e.g. company’s quarterly sales report to be viewed by
many users. For this companies can common data is stored on a network servers, which
is a central computer with a large storage and other resources which users (clients) have
to share. If the server stores data files for users to access, it is commonly called a file
server.
 Peripheral Devices like printer and photocopiers can also be shared using networks
instead of installing a printer to each client. Printers can be shared either by connecting a
printer directly to the network or it can be attached to a print server, which is a computer
that manages one or more computer.

 Personal
communication: emails,
teleconferencing (video,
audio, data), VOIP.
 Data backups: Data


backups are done by the

managers either through
shared storage devices
or
 using special backup
software to backup data,
without copying it to the
server first.
 Reliability (reduced


errors/inconsistencies)
 Greater performance


(distributed computing)

 Personal communication: emails, teleconferencing (video, audio, data), VOIP.

 Data backups: Data backups are done by the managers either through shared storage
devices or using special backup software to backup data, without copying it to the server
first.
 Reliability (reduced errors/inconsistencies)
 Greater performance (distributed computing)

 Common Types
of Networks
 There are two common
types of networks such
as Local Area Network
(LAN) and Wide Area
Network
 (WAN). Between LAN
and WAN structure we
can also find some
Hybrid networks i.e. CAN,
MAN, HAN
 etc.
 Local Area Network
(LAN):
 LAN is a type of
network that contains
computers that are
 relatively near each other
and are physically
 connected using
cables, infrared links or
wireless media. A LAN
may consist of two or
three PCs
 connected together to
share resources, or can
include hundreds of
computers. Any type of
network that
 exists within a single
building is considered
LAN, if it is not using
 internet. It can also
connect separate
 LANs e.g. two floors of
a same building can be
connected through LANs.
 Computers that are to
be connected to a
network, needs to have
a network interface
card (NIC). To
 connect together
different devices to make
up a network, you need
cables, Hub, Switch,
Router, firewall
 etc
 Common Types
of Networks
 There are two common
types of networks such
as Local Area Network
(LAN) and Wide Area
Network
 (WAN). Between LAN
and WAN structure we
can also find some
Hybrid networks i.e. CAN,
MAN, HAN
 etc.
 Local Area Network
(LAN):
 LAN is a type of
network that contains
computers that are
relatively near each other
and are physically
 connected using
cables, infrared links or
wireless media. A LAN
may consist of two or
three PCs
 connected together to
share resources, or can
include hundreds of
computers. Any type of
network that
 exists within a single
building is considered
LAN, if it is not using
internet. It can also
connect separate
 LANs e.g. two floors of
a same building can be
connected through LANs.
 Computers that are to
be connected to a
network, needs to have
a network interface
card (NIC). To
 connect together
different devices to make
up a network, you need
 cables, Hub, Switch,
Router, firewall
 etc
Common Types of Networks
There are two common types of networks such as Local Area Network (LAN) and
Wide Area Network (WAN). Between LAN and WAN structure we can also find some
Hybrid networks i.e. CAN, MAN, HAN etc.

Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is a type of network that contains computers that are relatively near each other and
are physically connected using cables, infrared links or wireless media. A LAN
may consist of two or three PCs connected together to share resources, or can include
hundreds of computers. Any type of network that exists within a single building is
considered LAN, if it is not using internet. It can also connect separate LANs e.g. two
floors of a same building can be connected through LANs. Computers that are to be
connected to a network, needs to have a network interface card (NIC). To connect
together different devices to make up a network, you need cables, Hub, Switch, Router,
firewall etc.

Wide area Network (WAN)

A computer network that spans a relatively large geographical area inter-
connecting two more local-area networks (LANs), is called Wide Area Network or
WAN. Computers connected to a wide-area network are often connected through
public networks, such as the telephone system or via internet through an Internet
Service Provider (ISP) that contracts with telecommunication networks to gain access
to internet’s backbone.
Campus Area Network
(CAN):
A Campus Area Network
(CAN) is a computer
network that links the
buildings and consists of
two or
more local area networks
(LANs) within the limited
geographical area. It can
be the college campus,
enterprise campus, office
buildings, military base,
and industrial complex. A
CAN is smaller than a
wide area network (WAN)
or metropolitan area
network (MAN). A CAN is
also known as a
corporate area network
(CAN).
Metropolitan Area
Network (MAN):
A metropolitan area
network (MAN) is similar
to a
local area network (LAN)
but spans an entire city
or
campus. MANs are formed
by connecting multiple
LANs. Thus, MANs are
larger than LANs but
smaller
than wide area networks
(WAN).
Mans are not usually owned
by a single organization;
their communication
devices and equipments
are
usually maintained by a
group or single network
provider that sells its
networking services to
corporate
customers. Mans can also
provide a shared
connection to other
networks using WAN link.
Campus Area Network (CAN)
A Campus Area Network (CAN) is a computer network that links the buildings
and consists of two or more local area networks (LANs) within the limited
geographical area. It can be the college campus, enterprise campus, office buildings,
military base, and industrial complex. A CAN is smaller than a wide area network
(WAN) or metropolitan area network (MAN). A CAN is also known as a
corporate area network (CAN).

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is similar to a local area network (LAN) but
spans an entire city or campus. MANs are formed by connecting multiple LANs.
Thus, MANs are larger than LANs but smaller than wide area networks (WAN).
Mans are not usually owned by a single organization; their communication devices
and equipments are usually maintained by a group or single network provider that
sells its networking services to corporate customers. Mans can also provide a shared
connection to other networks using WAN link.
Home Area Network
(HAN):
A home area network
(HAN) is a network that is
deployed and operated
within a small boundary,
typically a house or small
office/home office (SOHO).
It enables the
communication and
sharing of
resources (like the
Internet) between
computers, mobile,
televisions, video games,
home security
systems, “smart
appliances”, fax machines,
and other digital devices
that are wired over a
network.
Intranet and Extranet:
An intranet is a private
network accessible only
to an organization's staff.
An extranet is a private
network that uses Internet
technology and the public
telecommunication system
to securely share part
of a business's
information or operations
with suppliers, vendors,
partners, customers, or
other
businesses.
Home Area Network (HAN)
A home area network (HAN) is a network that is deployed and operated within a
small boundary, typically a house or small office/home office (SOHO). It enables
the communication and sharing of resources (like the Internet) between computers,
mobile, televisions, video games, home security systems, “smart appliances”, fax
machines, and other digital devices that are wired over a network.
Intranet and Extranet
An intranet is a private network accessible only to an organization's staff. An
extranet is a private network that uses Internet technology and the public
telecommunication system to securely share part of a business's information or
operations with suppliers, vendors, partners, customers, or other businesses.
How are networks
structured?
Networks can be
categorized by the roles the
servers and PCs play in
terms of hierarchical and
security
interaction. Some networks
use servers (server-based
networks) and some don’t
(peer-to-peer).
Server-based Networks
To understand server based
networks it is important to
understand the term node.
A node is processing
location that can be a PC
other some other device
such as a printer. Usually
server based networks
contain many nodes and
one or more servers, which
control user access to
networks resources i.e. file
server, network server,
application server,
database server etc.
How are networks structured
Networks can be categorized by the roles the servers and PCs play in terms of
hierarchical and security interaction. Some networks use servers (server-based networks)
and some don’t (peer-to-peer).
Server-based Networks To understand server based networks it is important to
understand the term node. A node is processing location that can be a PC other some
other device such as a printer. Usually server based networks contain many nodes
and one or more servers, which control user access to networks resources i.e. file server,
network server, application server, database server etc.
 Client-Server Networks A client/server network is a server based system where
one or more computers called clients connect to a central computer named a server
to share or use resources. Examples of computer applications that use the client–
server model are Email, network printing, and the World Wide Web.
Peer-to-Peer Networks In peer-to-peer (P2P) all nodes on a network have
equal relationship to all others, and all have similar type of software that supports
the sharing of resources. Instead of having a central server to act as a shared
drive, each computer acts as the server for the files stored upon it. Many client
operating systems like Windows 9x, Windows 2000, Windows Me, Windows Xp
and Macintosh OS, have built-in support for P2P networking.

Network Topologies:

An important feature of any LAN is its topology-the logical layout of the cables and the
devices that connect nodes of the network. Data moves in a network in a structure called
packet (datagram), which are the pieces of a message broken down into units the sending
PC. Payload is the actual data that is being transmitted between two nodes. Network
topologies help move data packets as efficiently as possible and also avoid collision.

Topology types:
Bus Topology
Bus Topology
Bus Topology is the
simplest of network
topologies. In this type of
topology, all the nodes
(computers as
well as servers) are
connected to the single
cable (called bus), by the
help of interface
connectors. This
central cable is the
backbone of the network
and is known as Bus (thus
the name). Every
workstation
communicates with the
other device through this
Bus.
A signal from the source
is broadcasted and it
travels to all workstations
connected to bus cable.
Although the message is
broadcasted but only the
intended recipient, whose
MAC address or IP
address matches, accepts
it. If the MAC /IP address
of machine doesn’t match
with the intended
address, machine discards
the signal.
A terminator is added at
ends of the central cable, to
prevent bouncing of
signals. A barrel connector
can be used to extend it.
Below I have given a basic
diagram of a bus topology
and then have discussed
advantages and
disadvantages of Bus
Network Topology
Bus Topology is the simplest of network topologies. In this type of topology, all the
nodes (computers as well as servers) are connected to the single cable (called bus), by
the help of interface connectors. This central cable is the backbone of the network and is
known as Bus (thus the name). Every workstation communicates with the other device
through this Bus. A signal from the source is broadcasted and it travels to all
workstations connected to bus cable. Although the message is broadcasted but only
the intended recipient, whose MAC address or IP address matches, accepts it. If the
MAC /IP address of machine doesn’t match with the intended address, machine
discards the signal. A terminator is added at ends of the central cable, to prevent
bouncing of signals. A barrel connector can be used to extend it. Below I have given a
basic diagram of a bus topology and then have discussed advantages and disadvantages
of Bus Network Topology.

Advantages of Bus Topology

 It is cost effective.
 Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
 Used in small networks.
 It is easy to understand.
 Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 Cable fails then whole network fails.
 If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network
decreases.
 Cable has a limited length.

Star Topology:-

Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central
connection point called a "hub node" that may be a network hub, switch or router.
Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Ethernet. Data packets are sent to the hub which then sends it to the intended node.
Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a
failure in any star network cable will only take down one computer's network
 access and not the entire LAN. (If the hub fails, however, the entire network also
fails.

Advantages of Star Topology

 Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.

 Hub can be upgraded easily.
 Easy to troubleshoot.
 Easy to setup and modify.
 Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work
smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
 Cost of installation is high.
 Expensive to use.
 If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes
depend on the hub.
 Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity .

Ring Topology:

A token ring network is a local area network (LAN) in which all computers are
connected in a ring or star topology and pass one or more logical tokens from host to host. Only
a host that holds atoken can send data, and tokens are released when receipt of the data is
confirmed. Each node examines data as it moves through the network. If the data, known
as token, is not addressed to the node examining it, that node passes it to the next node. There
is no danger of collision because only one token moves in the network at a time. A token
ring LAN is physically wired as a star topology but configured as a ring topology. If the
ring is broken, the entire network is down.

Advantages of Ring Topology

 Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more
nodes, as only the nodes having tokens can transmit data.
 Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
 Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
 Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
 Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

Mesh Topology:-

In a mesh network topology, each of the network node, computer and other devices, are
interconnected with one another. Every node not only sends its own signals but also relays
data from other nodes. In fact a true mesh topology is the one where every node is
connected to every other node in the network. This type of topology is very expensive as there
are many redundant connections, thus it is not mostly used in computer networks. It is
commonly used in wireless networks. Flooding or routing technique is used in mesh topology.
Mesh can be partial of full.
Advantages of Mesh Topology

 Each connection can carry its own data load.

 It is robust.
 Fault is diagnosed easily.
 Provides security and privacy

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

 Installation and configuration is difficult.

 Cabling cost is more.

TREE Topology:

It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

 Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

 Used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages of Tree Topology

 Extension of bus and star topologies.

 Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
 Easily managed and maintained.
 Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology

 Heavily cabled.
 Costly.
 If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
 Central hub fails, network fails.

Hybrid Topology It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more
topologies. For example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another
star topology is used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology
and star topology).

Network Protocols Network Protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between
computers on a network. These are the rules governing the syntax, semantics, and
synchronization of communication. A single LAN may utilize more than one protocol. Some
of the most common protocols in use today include:

TCP/IP: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)/Internet Protocol (IP) is the protocol of internet
and is required on any computer that must communicate across the internet. TCP/IP is now a
default protocol for Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Server 2003 and many other
operating systems When information is sent over the Internet, it is generally broken up into
smaller pieces or "packets". The use of packets facilitates speedy transmission since
different parts of a message can be sent by different routes and then reassembled at the
destination. It is also a safety measure to minimize the chances of losing information in the
transmission process. TCP is the means for creating the packets, putting them back together
in the correct order at the end, and checking to make sure that no packets got lost in transmission.
If necessary, TCP will request that a packet be resent. Internet Protocol (IP) is the method used
to route information to the proper address. Every computer on the Internet has to have its own
unique address known as the IP address. Every packet sent will contain an IP address showing
where it is supposed to go. A packet may go through a number of computer routers
before arriving at its final destination and IP controls the process of getting everything to the
designated computer.
Transmission Media With computer networks, media refers to the means which are used to link
a network’s nodes together. Transmission media or channels may be wired or wireless.

Wired/Guided Media
Three types of wired
(guided) channels are the
following.
Twisted-pair cable:
A twisted pair cable is
made of two plastic
insulated copper
wires twisted together to
form a single media. Out of
these two
wires, only one carries
actual signal and another
is used for
ground reference. The
twists between wires are
helpful in
reducing noise (electro-
magnetic interference) and
crosstalk. It
is used for both voice and
data transmission.
There are two types of
twisted pair cables:
 Shielded Twisted Pair
(STP) Cable
 Unshielded Twisted Pair
(UTP) Cable
Wired/Guided Media Three types of wired (guided) channels are the following.

Twisted-pair cable: A twisted pair cable is made of two plastic insulated copper wires
twisted together to form a single media. Out of these two wires, only one carries actual signal
and another is used for ground reference. The twists between wires are helpful in
reducing noise (electro-magnetic interference) and crosstalk. It is used for both voice and data
transmission.

There are two types of twisted pair cables:

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Advantages of Bus
Topology
 It is cost effective.
 Cable required is least
compared to other network
topology.
 Used in small networks.
 It is easy to understand.
 Easy to expand joining
two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus
Topology
 Cable fails then whole
network fails.
 If network traffic is
heavy or nodes are more
the performance of the
network decreases.
 Cable has a limited
length.
 It is slower than the ring
topology.
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): This cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering which
encases each pair of insulated conductors. Electromagnetic noise penetration is prevented by
metal casing. Shielding also eliminates crosstalk. It is faster the unshielded and coaxial
cable. It is more expensive than coaxial and unshielded twisted pair.

Unshielded Twisted
Pair:
It is the most common
type of telecommunication
when compared with
Shielded Twisted Pair
Cable
which consists of two
conductors usually copper,
each with its own color
plastic insulator.
Identification
is the reason behind
colored plastic insulation.
UTP cables consist of 2 or 4
pairs of twisted cable.
Cable
with 2 pair use RJ-11
connector and 4 pair
cable use RJ-
45 connector.
UTP cables are easy to
install, flexible, cheap,
have high speed
capacity, but their
bandwidth is limited when
compared with
coaxial cable. UTP also
provides less protection
from
interference.
UTP has seven categories,
each suitable for specific
use. In computer networks,
Cat-5, Cat-5e, and Cat-6
cables are mostly used.
Unshielded Twisted Pair: It is the most common type of telecommunication when
compared with Shielded Twisted Pair Cable which consists of two conductors usually copper,
each with its own color plastic insulator. Identification is the reason behind colored plastic
insulation. UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11
connector and 4 pair cable use RJ-45 connector. UTP cables are easy to install, flexible,
cheap, have high speed capacity, but their bandwidth is limited when compared with
coaxial cable. UTP also provides less protection from interference. UTP has seven
categories, each suitable for specific use. In computer networks, Cat-5, Cat-5e, and Cat-6 cables
are mostly used.
Fiber Optic Cable:-
Fiber-optic cable consists
of thin strands of glass or
plastic that transmits
beams of light rather than
electricity; it is very fast
and noise-resistant. Fiber
optic are Used for both
analog and digital signals.
These are similar to
coaxial cable. It uses
electric
signals to transmit data. At
the centre is the glass
core through which light
propagates. In multimode
fibers, the core is 50
microns, and in single
mode
fibers, the thickness is 8 to
10 microns.
Fiber Optic Cable:- Fiber-optic cable consists of thin strands of glass or plastic that transmits
beams of light rather than electricity; it is very fast and noise-resistant. Fiber optic are Used for
both analog and digital signals. These are similar to coaxial cable. It uses electric signals to
transmit data. At the centre is the glass core through which light propagates. In multimode fibers,
the core is 50 microns, and in single mode fibers, the thickness is 8 to 10 microns.

The core in fiber optic cable is surrounded by glass cladding with lower index of refraction as
compared to core to keep all the light in core. This is covered with a thin plastic jacket to protect
the cladding. The fibers are grouped together in bundles protected by an outer shield. Fiber
optic cable has bandwidth more than 2 gbps(Gigabytes per Second). Fiber optic are however,
very expensive and difficult to install.
Wireless Media:-

Wireless networks use radio or infrared signals that travel through the air (called other) for
transmitting data. Office LANs can use radio signals to transmit data between nodes in a
building. Laptops equipped with cellular modems allow users to connect to the office
networks when they travel. Corporate WANs often use microwave transmission to connect
LANs within the same metropolitan area. WANs that cover long distances often use satellites
and microwave communication.

Network Hardware:

All networks are made up of basic hardware building blocks to interconnect network nodes,
such as Network Interface Cards (NICs), Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers.

Network Interface Cards (NICs):

A network card, network adapter, or NIC (network interface card) is a piece of computer
hardware designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer network. It
provides physical access to a networking medium and often provides a low-level addressing
system through the use of MAC addresses. Each network interface card has its unique id. This is
written on a chip which is mounted on the card.

Hub: A hub is an affordable connection point for different type of devices on a network. This is
not a particularly fast connection because it broadcasts the packets it receives to all nodes
attached to its ports. This technology is becoming obsolete due to reduction in price of
switches. Hub is also considered to be a dumb device.

Bridges: A bridge is a device that connects two LANs or two segments of the same LAN. A
bridge looks at the information in each packet header and forwards data that is travelling from
one LAN to another. A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer
(layer 2) of the OSI model. Bridges broadcast to all ports except the port on which the broadcast
was received. However, bridges do not copy traffic to all ports, as hubs do, but learn which MAC
addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge associates a port and an address,
it will send traffic for that address to that port only.
Switches:

Switch is a telecommunication device grouped as one of computer network components.

Switch is like a Hub but built in with advanced features. It uses physical device
addresses in each incoming messages so that it can deliver the message to the right destination
or port. Like Hub, switch don’t broadcast the received message to entire network, rather
before sending it checks to which system or port should the message be sent. In other words
switch connects the source and destination directly which increases the speed of the
network. Modern switches can even function as routers, allowing multiple LANs to be
interconnected by linking each LAN’s switches together. This is called an uplink

Routers:

A router is a complicated device that stores the routing information for network. A router looks
at each packet’s header to determine where the packet should go and them determines the best
route for the packet to take towards its destination. A router will not allow broadcast traffic to
cross the device unless modified to do so. Thus, a packet must be addressed to a
specifically identified destination to pass through a router. A router is connected to at least
two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISP’s network. Routers are
located at gateways, the places where two or more networks connect. Routers have NAT
(Network Address Table) to hide company’s internal node IP addresses from the internet for
security purposes.